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India has emerged as the largest producer of milk in the World. This has boosted the confidence of producers, planners, dairy entrepreneurs and scientist alike. India has poised to play a major role in global dairy market in coming decade. The rapid growth of science and technology has positive impact on our life style and with strong trend of urbanization several demographic changes are likely to occur. There going to be ever increasing demand on the role of milk and milk products for human health. Accordingly, the demand for higher standards of milk products in terms of hygiene and safety of dairy products is to be followed. The competitiveness for the export of milk products among different dairy industry has increased in recent times due to GATT agreement. The biggest challenge before Indian dairy industry is the quality and safety of milk products indented for human consumption. Legal standards are made to have control over quality of food offered for sale and to safe guard the consumer form health hazards. It is therefore, imperative to determine different parameters that define product quality and safety. The purpose is to ensure production and distribution of products within well defined and accepted standards. This chapter deals with various parameters of product testing in order to maintain requisite prescribed standards.

A. Estimation of Calcium

Requirements : Pottasium permanganate solution (0.1N) – Dissolve by heating 33g of potassium permanganate in 1000ml distilled water and allow to stand in coloured bottle for several days. Filter contents through 6mm thick film of asbestos mat on Gooch crucible.

Asbestos mat – Digest asbestos with dilute hydrochloric acid(1:3) for 2-3 days, wash free from acid and digest with 10% sodium hydroxide for few days, wash free from alkali. Digest with dilute Nitric acid(1:3) for several hours and wash. Shake with water into fine pulp and digest with 0.1N potassium permanganate solution that has been acidified with dilute sulphuric acid (1:3), for 1 hour and wash. Use this pulp for layering 6mm film on Gooch crucible.

Dilute hydrochloric acid (1:4), Ammonium hydroxide solution (1:1), Saturated ammonium oxalate solution, Diluted sulphuric acid (1:4)

In the last decade or so, the problem of determining the microbial content and their activities in dairy products has been under close scrutiny. The dairy industries still adopt the dye reduction test because it is cheap, simple and satisfactory. However, other new techniques have been introduced along with some modifications in traditional tests. The microbiological quality must be maintained. To assess the bacterial content and their activities in dairy products, various methods are available for the microbiological testing of milk. The specific tests should be chosen as per the application and other factors like cost etc. On the basis of public health and economic consideration it is necessary to test microbiological quality of milk at a number of points along the chain from producer to consumer which includes - raw milk supply, bulk milk arriving at processors premises, monitoring bulk milk during storage prior to processing and monitoring the procession & the quality control of finished products. The techniques for estimating bacterial numbers in raw material are divided into two categories.

Laboratory Tests

Sampling procedures

Samples from number of containers- As soon as the cans are received at the reception dock, remove the lid, mix contents of each can with a plunger and draw equal quantities from each container and mix together. Draw approximately 80 – 100 ml of sample for testing. If the cans are of same diameter, Alternatively, milk from different containers are first poured into a vat and then the sample is drawn by thorough mixing as above..

Samples from storage tank – Before drawing sample from storage tank, switch on the mechanical agitator and allow the contents to mix for 15-20 minutes. Discard first 1.0 L of milk. Transfer 250-500 ml of the mixed milk from the outlet valve into a sample bottle.

Samples from rail / road tankers- Open the lid of the tanker and insert a big plunger through the main hole and move it forward, downward and backward bring the plunger to the surface at each stroke. Continue mixing for 15-20 minutes. Draw proportionate quantities of sample with the help of suitable dipper from different levels. Draw 250-500 ml of well-mixed sample into the sample bottle. The total volume of individual composite sample should not be less than 150 ml.

Milk is a product of biological origin and is a suitable vehicle to accommodate any additive without apparent changes in its look. The quality of milk and its products depends upon quality of raw milk used in their manufacture, processing and handling conditions. It is therefore, necessary to check quality of raw milk to assess its suitability for processing, through various quick tests called “Platform Tests”

Raw milk quality assessment

(A) At collection center: - Milk from various suppliers is generally collected at dairy factory or privately owned collection centers located in marked area of milk sheds. The quantum of supply may vary from 2 – 100 Liters. As each supplier has to be paid in relation to quantity and quality of his produce, it is important to draw samples and ascertain its quality by performing quick tests for the purpose of acceptance or rejection.

Sampling procedures - The sampling procedure differs according to the nature of material and the purpose for which the sample is required. The sample collected for chemical analysis should be representative of the entire batch. Thorough mixing with proper instrument is essential to ensure representative sample. Samples for chemical analysis are to be delivered the same day for testing. If un-avoided, add small amount of preservative (Formaldehyde) to prevent deterioration and bear label to the effect.

Sample from single container – The procedure involved is thorough mixing of contents. If it is small container the contents should be poured from one vessel to another with swirling. In case of can the contents should be mixed with the help of plunger which should be moved up and down and sideways for about 10-15 times. The sample is then drawn with the help of dipper from different levels and collected in clean and dry sample bottles.

The functioning of the Women Dairy Cooperative Societies depends upon the variations in managerial capacity leading to profit and loss of different WDCS. To make an in-depth analysis, the study was undertaken in undivided Cuttack and Dhenkanal district of Odisha covering 22 randomized WDCS with a sample of 110 women respondents.

The analysis of the findings after statistical treatment have been presented objective-wise as follows;

Socio-economic profile of the members of WDCS involved in dairy production activities.

Gap between procedures prescribed and followed in formation and functioning of WDCS.

Identification and analysis of key performance areas in the WDCS.

Determination of management practices and milk production profiles of WDCS members.

Extent of participation of women members in dairy activities.

Entrepreneurial characteristics of members of Women Dairy Cooperative Society.

Impact of WDCS on socio-economic status of the members.

Correlating variables and their interrelationship in predicting smooth functioning of WDCS.

Constraints faced by the WDCS members.

Suggestions of members for improvement in functioning of WDCS

The major focus of the study was to critically analyse the overall performance of Women Dairy Cooperative Societies (WDCS) in two districts of Odisha. The methodology used in carrying out investigation has been outlined in eight sections as mentioned below.

1. Selection of problem
2. Research design
3. Plan of work
4. Locale of the study
5. Sampling procedure

The study was undertaken in the state of Odisha. The state lies in between 17^o-31’ to 22^o-27’ North latitude and 81^o-27 to 87^o-30’ East longitude. It is bounded by West Bengal in the north east, Jharkhand in the north, Chatisgarh in the west, Andhra Pradesh in the south and Bay of Bengal in the east. The main features of the state is appeared inTable 3.1.

Status of Women

As per 2011 Census, women account for 586.46 million, and represent 48.5% of India’s total population. However, from global perspectives, they constitute half of global population, and 1/3^rd labour force, but receive only 1/10^th of world income, and own less than 1% of world’s property. Further from national point of view as Reddy et al. (1994) in his study opined that “although women constitute 50 percent of India’s population, perform two-thirds of the work and produce 50 percent of food commodities consumed by the country and they earn only one-third of the remuneration and 10 percent of the property or wealth of the country.

The vast majority of working women are uneducated cultivators and agricultural labourers residing in villages. Most of the women, working on the family farm are unpaid labourers. 63 percent of all educated women with at least a high school certificate are unemployed, and of the 37 percent who are employed 15 percent are clerks, 5 percent teachers, 7 percent nurses and 10 percent are other professionals. Only 6 percent of Government employees are women (Jain, A.K. 2004). Rural Women form the most important productive work force in the economy of majority of the developing nations including India. Agriculture, the single largest production endeavour in India, contributing about 18% of GDP, is increasingly becoming a female activity. Agriculture sector employs 4/5th of all economically active women in the country. 48% of India’s self-employed farmers are women. There are 75 million women engaged in dairying as against 15 million men and 20 million in animal husbandry as compared to 1.5 million men.

Despite progress in several key indicators, a gender analysis demonstrates that women continue to be relatively disadvantaged in matters of survival, health, nutrition, literacy and productivity. Further, more than 90 percent of rural women are unskilled, restricting them to low paid occupations. Women generally have no control over land and other productive assets which largely exclude them from access to institutional credit. Further, agricultural wages for women, on an average 30-50 percent less than those for men. Though they work for longer hours under inhospitable conditions, their participation in decision making process is less than desirable.

Livestock Population and it’s Economic Contribution

According to 18th Livestock census of India (2007), India has about 199.1 million cattle, which constitute 44.29 per cent of Asian and 12.7 per cent of the world cattle population. The current buffalo population is 105.34 million which accounts 57 per cent of Asian and 55 per cent of the world buffalos. The major output of the entire livestock sector is from the milk, which is the second most agricultural commodities next to paddy. According to the annual report of the Ministry of Agriculture and Cooperation, during 2006-07, the contribution of milk alone (Rs.1,44,386 crore) was higher than paddy (Rs.85,032 crore), wheat (Rs.66,791 crore) and sugarcane (Rs.28,488 crore). The value of output from meat group animals as per estimates of Central Statistical Organization (CSO) at current prices was Rs. 34, 310 crore during 2006-07. Total export earnings from livestock, poultry and related products were Rs.5,213.80 crore during 2006-07. Eighty percent rural households keep livestock for their subsidiary income, important for employment, livelihood, nutrition, constant flow of quick and fast income, reduces the vulnerability of agricultural production. Trends indicate that animal protein consumption would rise proportionately with increase in income. The 18th Livestock Census (2007) has placed the total livestock population at 529.698 million and total of poultry birds at 648.830 million.

Introduction

A food safety system revolves around different aspects, beginning right from the farm, where the food is created and transported to where the customers purchase, eat and dispose. This includes production, processing, distribution, preparation, marketing, access, consumption, and disposal. These processes need to have numerous resources like people, business, farms, communities, interventions, policies, and politics. All steps ought to be coordinated for an organisation to make progress. In today’s world of processed foods and industrial farming practices, ingredients and preparation procedures are typically uncertain. In order to reduce the confusion of consumers and to provide quick, straightforward identification of the commodities they’re searching for, many items are now “certified” by revered organizations.

Food safety certification is a third-party verification, to ensure that commodities, processes or systems in the food supply chain meet accepted food safety standards. It is distinct from different systems like supplier declarations, laboratory test reports or inspection body reports. Food certification is predicated on the results of tests, inspections and audits and provides confidence to the buyer as a result of an organization’s commodities or system are being completely evaluated against accepted national and international business standards by a competent third body.

Introduction

Food and water safety is a public health concern. “It is health that is real wealth and not pieces of gold and silver” is a famous quote by Mahatma Gandhi. To provide good health and to maintain it properly for all citizens, the country need to assure the quality and safety of food consumed by it's population (Attrey, 2016). Apart from nutrition and taste, a more important part of food is the safety standards during manufacture, storage, distribution, sale and import. Food safety is particularly important in India, where an inordinately high percentage of population suffer from malnutrition and food borne diseases (Bahuguna, 2016). Food borne diseases in India have increased the frequency of mortality and morbidity. Around 5.82 crore cases of food borne diseases and 3.51 lakh food associated deaths were reported in 2010. Nowadays the consumption of unsafe food is being considered as an alarming threat to the growing global food markets. Adulteration and synthetic milk in India, powdered infant formula with melamine in China and adulteration of beef in Europe are a few examples. These issues can be resolved to a great extent, through appropriate food laws and policies. A country should not only possess appropriate statutory, regulatory legislations, policies in place for the su-pply of safe and good quality food at all times, but also should assure that the same is imple-mented seriously (Attrey, 2017).

Apart from health, food safety is vital for economic growth and progress as well. In India, the food processing industry holds tremendous opportunity. It has high employment potential, can boost exports of agro-products out of the country and also provide better returns to farmers for their produce. The concept of food quality and food laws is not totally new in India because food was considered an important aspect of healthy living even in ancient India. India took an important step towards building a safe food culture a decade ago by enacting the Food Safety and Standards (FSS) Act. In one stroke, it brought about a paradigm shift in the way we look at food safety regulations in India. Food Safety and Standards Authority of India (FSSAI) are mandated under Food Safety and Standards Act 2006 to protect people from this threat. In its role of a food regulator, FSSAI can be proud that it touches the lives of each of the 1.3 billion people in the country. More than just reaching the people, the watchful eye of FSSAI is assuring them that the food they get in any form, raw or processed is safe to consume (Agarwal, 2016).

Introduction

Food quality control systems in all sectors of food chain around the globe are driven by guidelines to help the authorities to enforce rules and regulations to protect the public from fraud and deception in various levels of food production and facilitate fair trade. This also helps authorities to select suitable options of infrastructure and enforcement mechanics. Such documentation provide possible infrastructure and approaches to national food control systems to use them or further improve them wherever needed (Temesgen, 2015). To make a food control system most effective; it is strengthened by improving the existing fragmented legislation, multiple jurisdictions, and weaknesses in surveillance, monitoring and enforcement in many countries. Organisations like FAO and WHO help enforce food laws and regulations to meet a country’s sanitary as well as phytosanitary requirements.

Generally, food law may be divided in two parts: (i) a basic food act, and (ii) regulations. The Act itself give broad principles, while regulations contain detailed provisions governing the different categories of products coming under the jurisdiction of each set of regulations. Detailed provisions are needed for effective administration of and enlightened compliance with the basic food laws. In governments where there is a division between the responsibilities of the legislative and executive branches, the legislative branch enacts the basic law, while detailed regulations are elaborated and promulgated by the executive agency or agencies responsible for administering the law. Regular revisions of regulation is necessary because of novel scientific knowledge, change of processing technology, or quick action to protect public health. Such revisions can be made much more expeditiously by executive agencies than by legislative bodies. In some of the countries food standards are a part of the regulations; in the other countries they are separate enactments.

Introduction

The conventional thermal processing technologies are dependent on high temperature to control the growth of pathogenic and spoilage causing microorganisms. However, the exposure to high temperature for prolonged time results in several biological, chemical and physical modifications leading to their sensory, nutritional and textural changes. Currently, consumers are more interested in minimally processed food products with improved safety and shelf life. In order to fulfill the market demand, innovative non-thermal food processing techniques to inactivate the microorganisms have been developed. These techniques retain freshness, nutritional value and sensory characteristics of food items without any significant thermal degradation.

Non-thermal technologies are used in interdisciplinary sciences, and in many other applied areas. The three main pillars related to the use of novel food technologies are food safety, quality and environmental impacts. Besides the food safety and quality dimensions, these non-thermal processing technologies have the possibility to shorten treatment time, lower energy consumption, and lower carbon footprint. Depending on the source of energy transfer, non-thermal technologies have different types of action. It includes inactivation of microorganisms in radical formation (plasma, ultrasound, ozonation, UV light, etc.); mechanical action through hydrodynamic effects, shock waves (ultrasound and plasma), electric and magnetic fields; or extremely high pressures that are causing disruption of the cell organelle.

The novel non-thermal technologies destroy the pathogens at room temperature as well as utilize less energy compared to conventional ones and have the potential of developing new food products having distinctive functionality. For optimizing the product quality, time for processing and also to inactivate the enzymes and bacteria, each of these techniques can be used either alone or in combination. The adverse effect of some technologies on the sensory, texture, and nutritional values of food could be overcome by using hurdle technology. Combination strategies are more efficient for improving the food quality and have the potential to ensure the microbial safety of foods. An overview of the effect of novel process technologies on the quality and safety of food is elaborated in this chapter.

Introduction

Packaging helps to maintain the benefits of food processing and enables safe transportation of foods from their point of origin to point of consumption without compromising the wholesomeness of processed food in terms of its physico chemical and microbiological quality. However, packaging technology must balance protection effects with environmental issues, material and energy costs and should comply regulations on municipal solid waste disposal and release of pollutants. These regulations are different in jurisdictions around the world.

Safety implications of food packaging raise concern in recent times due to advances in technology leading to variety of packaging materials and additives. Also there is an alarming situation of damages to environment and natural resources of the planet, due to indiscriminate use and disposal of packaging materials.

However, food packaging as a means to protect and preserve food integrity, to enhance its shelf life and improve consumer appeal cannot be overlooked.The applications of food packaging and its primary role to protect and preserve food has remained the central focus of packaging innovations.Packaging materials are available in variety of forms and are made up of variety of ingredients.While paper. While paper, plastic, petroleum based materials have been in use for many years, the recent approach is towards environment friendly options from agricultural produce such as plant fibres sugars and starches. Advances in packaging has led to development of newer materials and combinations with specific economic and functional benefits.Food packaging ,in general , provides the ability to withstand thermal processing and acts as a barrier against light, moisture,oxygen and other sources of contamination.

Introduction

The green revolution which initiated in India during 1960’s to 1980’s was an attempt to overcome the then prevailing threats of food scarcity and lack of foreign exchange. The food scarcity was a result of severe drought which engulfed the country as well as the political situation it had to face after its short period of gaining independence (Reddy, 2010). The only way out to overcome the acute food scarcity was intensive agriculture, with the use of high yielding varieties, chemical fertilisers and pesticides which heavily boosted agriculture production in India. The remarkable increase in production and productivity resulted in non-judicious use of chemical inputs to extract the maximum from the degrading soil. This marked the era of soil, water and air pollution and extreme health hazards to all life forms.

Rachel Carson’s “Silent spring” in 1962 was an insight into the path of DDT the then prevalent pesticide through its effect on the food chain as well as the environment. She was one among the scientists to raise her voice against the indiscriminate use of pesticides. The evident impacts raised concerns over the continued use of chemical inputs (Lairon, 2010). The situation warranted the reduced or limited use of chemicals in agriculture which resulted in an “organic movement”. This caused a slow, but evident shift in the interest of growers and consumers towards organic agriculture for health security, food safety, quality and better returns (Niggli et al., 2007).

This review is an attempt to analyse the various factors affecting the safety and quality of organic food products in comparison with conventional food. Drawing a proper conclusion was a difficult task due to the limited availability of scientific papers published in this aspect, indication of only trends rather than solid proofs and non-revelation of non-significant data regarding related experiments. However, this review could evaluate the positive and negative aspects of organic cultivation and food production from the available data, so as to suggest measures for improving the quality and safety of organic food products.

Introduction

Food is a culture, emotion, hospitality and prestige which is closely knitted with tradition. Traditional knowledge is a community based functional knowledge system which is developed, preserved and refined by generations through continuous interaction, observation and experimentation with their surrounding environment. It includes beliefs, values, and practices gathered from the practical experience of older generation, and its whole function is survival and development of culture of people. Traditional foods, originated from ancestral kitchens are developed through ages, invented, modified, utilised and evolved to improve nutritional and social wellbeing of the people around the world. Most of them are culture specific, region specific, environment specific, community specific and season specific. These foods are socially, culturally and economically important and provide food security, enhance livelihood and improve nutritional and social wellbeing of people. Food culture arises out of the place of a people’s origin and so traditional local foods hold the potential to bind and stabilise communities and enable a cultural continuity through conserving their histories. Indian cuisine is represented as a wide spectrum of food cultures with distinctive regional differences and preferences (Achaya, 1998).

Street Foods-An Introduction

The National Policy on Urban Street Vendors (2004) defines street vendor as a person who offers goods for sale to the public without having a permanent built-up structure but with a temporary static structure or mobile stall (or head load). Street vendors may be stationary occupying space on the pavements or other public/private areas, or may be mobile in the sense that they move from place to place carrying their wares on push carts or cycles or baskets on their heads, or may sell their wares in moving trains and buses. The total number of street vendors in India has been estimated to be ten million and the number of street food vendors has increased sharply in the past few years (Bhowmik 2005).

The preparation and sale of street food is an age-old activity with historical roots and complex socio-economic and cultural implications. Street food vendors are mostly outside the regulation of the governments and unregistered thus making them an informal sector. Similar to most other informal sector enterprises street food operations too are carried out with minimal investment, infrastructure and as familial operations. Street food outlets are seen mushrooming at crowded public places like bus stands, cinema halls, market areas and parks. They operate as temporary structures or as pushcarts parked near the roadside or at pavements. Most street food vendors operate their food stands alone and are able to generate sufficient income for sustenance.

Introduction

Thermal processing is an important treatment for food preservation is, especially in the manufacture of shelf-stable foods with specific nutritional properties. It is also indispensable for determining the sensory properties, particularly, colour, flavour, and texture of fried, baked, and roasted products. As a result of heat treatment, chemical changes induced, and a plethora of new molecules are formed in foods, some of which have been claimed to be health-promoting antioxidants and anti-mutagens. However, reports suggest that thermal processing leads to the formation of certain toxic compounds, so-called process-induced contaminants in foods. The process-induced toxicants are certain compounds which are formed in food as a result of food processing, exert adverse toxicological effects, and cause potential health risks to humans. Acrylamide, furan, chloropropanols, heterocyclic aromatic amines, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, and N-nitrosamines are some well-known examples of thermal process contaminants.

Introduction

Food additives are substances of natural or synthetic origin, which are added to foods to serve a certain technological or sensory function. They are utilized in the preparation and processing of almost all types of food in order to give favorable attributes to the food. Additives are the substances which are of little or no nutritive value but are added to food to enhance its flavour, appearance or other favourable quality. They are used in the processing or storage of foods especially in the developed countries includes antioxidants, food preservatives, colouring and flavouring agents etc. Food additives are substances added to food to preserve flavour or enhance its taste and appearance (Latiful Bari and Yeasmin 2018). Some additives have been used for centuries for example, preserving food by pickling with vinegar, salting, as with bacon, or using sulfur dioxide as in some wines. The use of food additives is not a modern-day invention; they have been used for centuries. The practice probably started when man first discovered that fire would cook and thereby preserve his meat. Later he realized that the addition of salt would preserve without cooking. Food preservation began when man first learned to safeguard food from one harvest to the next and by the salting and smoking of meat and fish. The Egyptians used colours and flavourings and the Romans used spices and colours for preservation and improving the appearance of foods. Thus, food additives have been used for centuries to enhance the variety of food products, to preserve, improve its taste and appearance, and provide a better mouth feel. Food additives afford us the convenience and enjoyment of a wide variety of appetizing, nutritious, fresh, and palatable food. Their quantities in food are small, yet their impact is great.