eChapters

Abstract

The unique characteristics of mare’s milk help to prevent many chronic diseases. The health beneficial properties of this milk is even acknowledged since ancient time and this milk is being successfully used as medicated food against a wide range of chronic diseases. The merits of mare’s milk has also been noted by the cosmetic and pharmacy industries. Lastly, considering many health beneficial effects of this milk, attempt should be made to augment the production and popularization of mare’s milk. In this chapter different aspects of mare’s milk has been pointed out in different sections and subsections.

Introduction

Globally, 16.9% of milk consumed by humans comes from species other than cattle. Non-cattle milk is linked more to territories than cows’ milk: sheep in the Mediterranean basin, horse in Central Asia, yak in Himalayas, camel in desert regions. The domestic equid species (horse and donkey) belong to the taxonomic order Perissodactyla, family Equidae and genus Equus. The nutritional and therapeutic properties of horse (Equus caballus) milk have been known since ancient times according to the historian Erodoto (V century BC). Although horses are of minor importance for milk production in comparison with cows, buffalo, sheep and goats, they have been traditionally important dairy animals in Mongolia and in the southern states of the former Soviet Union, e.g., Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan and Tajikistan. Aristotle (322 BC) reported the existence of a dairy product in Mongolia that processed mare’s milk to transform it into a fermented product with an alcohol content of 3% and Herodotus also reported something very similar performed by the Scythians;

Introduction
Market milk holds a crucial place in human nutrition, economic development, and the dairy industry. Its consumption patterns and marketing strategies continue to adapt, influenced by evolving lifestyles, consumer preferences, and advancements in processing and packaging technologies. Regulatory frameworks ensure its safety and quality, while the wide range of milk types caters to diverse dietary and cultural requirements around the world.
Modern dairy farms rely on advanced milking machines that prioritize both efficiency and hygiene. These machines use vacuum-operated devices to gently extract milk from cows’ teats without causing discomfort. The collected milk is immediately transferred into refrigerated tanks to maintain its freshness and prevent bacterial growth. Speed and efficiency in transporting milk to processing facilities are critical to ensuring its safety and quality.
At the processing plant, milk undergoes standardization, an essential step where the fat content is adjusted to produce different types of milk, such as whole milk, toned milk, double-toned milk, and skimmed milk. This ensures uniformity in fat levels, meeting market specifications and regulatory standards such as prescribed by FSSAI in case of India.
The milk then undergoes pasteurization, a process of heating it to a specific temperature for a defined period to eliminate harmful bacteria while preserving its nutritional value. Pasteurization has significantly improved milk safety, reduced health risks, and extended its shelf life. Following this, the milk is homogenized, where fat molecules are evenly distributed to prevent cream separation. This centres a smooth texture and consistent flavor preferred by consumers.

What new research is needed, what trials and how will the ultimate consumer and Industry benefit?
 
In Brazil, the sales of functional foods amounts to US $ 500 million per year representing about 1% of the total sale of the Brazilian food processing industry. According to a report the interests are mainly for dairy products, nutraceuticals and soy-based products. ABIA forecasts a substantial growth of 4.5-5% for this segment of the market (Stanton et al., 2001). In order to exert the health benefits beyond inherent basic nutrition, it is necessary that the activity of the probiotic culture should be maintained at very high levels during the shelf life of the product.

In India, about 46 per cent of the milk produced is either consumed at the producer level or sold to non-producers in the rural area, the balance 54 per cent of the milk is available for sale to organized and unorganized players. The organized sector comprises of Government, Producers’ Owned Institutions (Milk Cooperatives & Producer Companies), and Private players which provides a fair and transparent system of milk collection round the year at the village level. The unorganized/informal sector involves local milkmen, dudhias, contractors, etc. and they are mostly found to be opportunistic, as there is no uniformity of milk price paid to producers and it varies depending upon the situation. The possibility of adulteration of milk is higher among these unorganized groups. In the areas where competition is high and the presence of the formal sector is strong, the unorganized sector generally gives higher prices and at the same time, the unorganized sector doesn’t offer remunerative prices to the producers where the organized sector is not present.

According to International Dairy Federation(IDF),1980, Mastitis also called as ‘mammitis’ is defined as an inflammation of the udder, almost always of microbial origin and is the outcome of a local or a general infection. The common symptoms are related to inflammation, viz., swollen, hot, red, and painful udders. Mastitis can be classified based on symptoms or on the causative organism.

A) Forms of mastitis based on symptoms

    1.    Acute or clinical
    2.    Sub-acute or subclinical
    3.    Chronic.

Introduction

Measurement of pH of a solution and preparation of different types/strength of buffers are common practices in a laboratory, particularly in the Biochemistry and Molecular Biology laboratories. Therefore, in this chapter you will be acquainted with the procedures of measuring pH of a solution as well as preparation of some of the commonly used buffers in a laboratory.

Potential or Power of Hydrogen Ion (pH)

Measurement of pH of a solution is measuring the molar concentration of hydrogen ion [H+] in the solution, which is an indication of the acidity or basicity of the solution. The symbol pH stands for “power of hydrogen” and numerical value for pH is just the negative logarithm of the molar concentration of hydrogen ions [H+]. The ionic product of water (Kw ) is the basis for the pH scale. The total hydrogen ion concentration from all the sources and it can be experimentally measured.

The pH scale designates the concentration of H+ (and thus of OH−) in an aqueous solution, which ranges between 1.0 M H+ and 1.0 M OH−. The term pH is defined by the expression

Thus, the ionic product of water makes it possible to calculate the concentration of H+, with given concentration of OH−, and vice versa. The value of 7 for pH of a neutral solution is not an arbitrarily chosen figure; it is derived from the absolute value of the ionic product of water. A solution having pH greater than 7 is basic, and the concentration of OH− is greater than that of H+. A solution having a pH less than 7 is acidic.

Abstract

The interest in the utilization of industrial by-products is increasing day by day and is major reason for exploring different meat, poultry and fish industry waste and optimization of extracting conditions of different valuable compounds. Utilization of these by-products in effective manner can be positive for meat industry economy as well as environmental pollution of the country. Besides the potential revenue losses, non-utilized or underutilized by-products accounts for the extra cost for their disposal. Meat producers are converting these by-products into value added edible and inedible form. Among the most prominent current uses of meat, poultry and fish waste are food ingredients, water treatment, cosmetic and personal care products, biogas/biodiesel, biomedical and pharmaceutical application. Several studies have dealt with the production of several value-added products such as gelatin, collagen, enzymes, specific proteins, bioactive peptides, chitin, chitosan, and pigments fro m the meat industries waste. Recently, in the food and pharmaceutical industry, an increasing number of new applications have been found for products generated from meat, poultry and fish industry waste; in different products as foaming agents, emulsifiers, biodegradable film-forming materials, colloid stabilizers, and microencapsulating agents, in line with the growing trend to replace synthetic agents with more natural ones.

The biofilm formation is usually assayed by using Congo Red Agar (CRA) plate test. According to a method developed by Freeman et al., (1989) the isolates are stored in nutrient agar slants and screened for biofilm formation ability using CRA plates. Biofilm forming strains are observed as dark black colonies while others as red colonies on the CRA plates. Recently, the concept of these biofims have changed with new imaging technologies, biochemical methods and molecular ecosystem biology tools. A biofilm structure can be observed in 3-D form to the nano-scale level (Neu and Lawrence, 2015). A lot of studies are being conducted on the physiology of the biofilm cells, the genotypic and phenotypic variation among the biofilm community, as well as the biofilm metabolome, proteome and transcriptome (Raes and Bork, 2008). This will help in the the development of efficient methods to control deleterious biofilms (clinical biofilms, food contaminants, biofouling on industrial equipment and on ship hulls) and to enhance and modulate beneficial ones

The lack of mechanistic understanding of probiotic activity is a major drawback for the prediction of safety of probiotic intervention. The complex gut-associated microbial ecosystem and nutritionally related factors are the most important environmental triggers for the development and modification of chronic degenerative diseases including immune and metabolic pathologies. In fact, the interaction between the gut microbial ecosystem and the host is considered to be a critical factor in overall health or disease. Whether probiotics will exert protective, harmful, immune-stimulating or immune-suppressing effects on a host is dependent on the interaction between the microbial signals, the genetic make-up of the host and the effects by the environment. Many studies have revealed that certain probiotic bacteria stimulate immune cell proliferation and activity as evidenced by the production of cytokines and antibodies, thereby enhancing the effectiveness of the immune response against pathogens. Ng et al. (2009)

Membrane technology is a proven separation method used on the molecular and ionic levels. Since the beginning of the 1970s, this technique has been adopted by the dairy industry. Membrane separation is widely used in dairy processing plants to perform an ever-increasing range of duties, e.g. pre-concentration, partial demineralization, protein separation, bacteria removal, brine clarification and waste water recycling. Representing one of the great technological developments occurring within the dairy industry during the second half of the twentieth century, progress was driven initially by the transfer of know-how gleaned from the application of cellulose acetate-based reverse osmosis (RO) and ultrafiltration (UF) membranes in other industrial sectors to whey processing. Later, new membrane materials and engineering designs were built on this initial achievement and opened up further opportunities for the application of the full spectrum of membrane separation systems that also includes Nan filtration (NF) and cross-flow microfiltration The integration of these unit operations into traditional dairy processes has led to the development of innovative ingredients as well as improvements in yield, efficiency and product quality. R & D work indicates potential RO application for concentration of milk for products like khoa, condensed and dried milk products and of UF application for the manufacture of shrikhand, paneer, chana and cheese. Application of these processes permits higher energy saving, higher yields and superior product quality compared to traditional processes of thermal evaporation.

6.1 Metabolism
Dietary components like carbohydrates, lipids, and proteins are continuously broken down and synthesized through various chemical reactions (exergonic or endergonic) that are concerned with energy. These processes not only break them down but also interconvert them for their synthesis. Dietary components, when utilized, are known as nutrients the body. The number of reactions occurring in living cells maintains the body cells and fluid’s homeostasis and dynamic status. To keep the dynamic state of a cell, many reactions are going on to synthesize or break down the different types and sizes of molecules. The total of these reactions is known as metabolism.
The metabolism may be anabolic or catabolic. Further, it may be aerobic or anaerobic, depending on oxygen availability. These four terms are explained below:
I. Aerobic and Anaerobic Metabolism
• Aerobic metabolism-- In aerobic metabolism, the carbohydrates (substrate) in the presence of oxygen are metabolized to release energy, carbon dioxide, and water. The released energy is converted to ATP by two processes in the mitochondria (the Krebs cycle and oxidative phosphorylation). In oxidation, the electrons released from a glucose molecule are transferred to reduced NAD+ and FAD. The oxygen (electron acceptor) is reduced to water. Water formation [from H2(g) and O2(g)] is an exothermic reaction. The energy released from the chemical bond of glucose is captured as ATP, and heat is released.

Milk, commonly referred to as the “ideal food,” is an essential source of nutrition for human consumption. Because of the growing human population and the rising demand for milk and milk products, there is more interest in and concern about the quality and safety of dairy products. Milk comprises chemical substances with various functions in the human body, such as carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and trace elements (vitamins, minerals, etc.) (Guetouache et al., 2014).

Introduction

Numerous characteristics of food determine its acceptability to consumers and to regulatory officials. Before accepting a food for consumption, it must be attractively presented, must have desirable odour and flavour characteristics and other qualities and must be free from potential pathogens or their toxic products. The ultimate nutritive qualities, flavour and appearance have been preserved and no harmful organisms or substances are present to affect the consumer adversely. If the quality of the product is good, its keeping quality is also likely to be substantial. Conversely, there are more chances of spoilage of an inferior quality food product during storage.

In the last decade or so, the problem of determining the microbial content and their activities in dairy products has been under close scrutiny. The dairy industries still adopt the dye reduction test because it is cheap, simple and satisfactory. However, other new techniques have been introduced along with some modifications in traditional tests. The microbiological quality must be maintained. To assess the bacterial content and their activities in dairy products, various methods are available for the microbiological testing of milk. The specific tests should be chosen as per the application and other factors like cost etc. On the basis of public health and economic consideration it is necessary to test microbiological quality of milk at a number of points along the chain from producer to consumer which includes - raw milk supply, bulk milk arriving at processors premises, monitoring bulk milk during storage prior to processing and monitoring the procession & the quality control of finished products. The techniques for estimating bacterial numbers in raw material are divided into two categories.

This chapter introduces the microbiological characteristics of eggs and egg products, beginning with the egg's natural physical and chemical defenses against microorganisms. It examines routes of contamination, spoilage microorganisms and spoilage patterns, with particular emphasis on Salmonella Enteritidis and its public-health significance. Other pathogens of concern and the distinctive microbiology of processed egg products are also considered. The chapter discusses microbiological testing, indicator organisms, contamination control and predictive microbiology, providing a foundation for designing effective safety systems throughout the egg value chain.

Microorganism is a collective term for all living organisms, which are not visible to the eye, and occupy an intermediate position between the vegetable and animal kingdoms. They are found every where in the atmosphere, in water and in the soil and, as they break down organic materials, they play a very important role in the cycle of the nature.

There are thousands of species which are important to the life and economic structure of the human race. For example, certain species form simple chemical elements during the break down of dead organic material which plants can use again. They increase soil fertility and crop production which results in more food.

Other species are present, and essential, in animal intestines, helping in the digestion of food.

Some microorganisms are used in many food processes, e.g. dahi, yoghurt, cheese, pickles, beer and wine as well as in the acid production to preserve foods. There are microorganisms that produce toxic substances which kill other organisms, e.g. the mould penicillium which produces the substance penicillin.

Many microorganisms cause diseases in animals and plants with a subsequent reduction in the nation’s food supply, whereas others cause food deterioration such as mouldy foods, tainted foods, etc.

Abstract

Cow and buffalo milk is the major source milk worldwide contributing 81 and 15% of total milk production respectively. However, milk from animals like goat, sheep, camel, donkey, yak etc also contribute to human nutrition and health in different parts of world. These milks are source of staple traditional product and considered as delicacy in parts of Europe, UK, USA etc. The microbiota of raw milk and fermented milks, cheeses, made from raw milk is complex. These microorganisms have immense role in determining quality and safety of the subsequent product made from these milks as they may be responsible in spoilage and reducing shelf life, causing human health issues, also contribute to development of flavor and aroma formation, texture development, ripening cheese. Different factors like host, stage of lactation etc. affect the composition of microbiota present in the milks and methods like cultural and culture independent methods metagenomic analysis have been done to determine the microbial community present in the milk.

Introduction

Non- cow and non-buffalo milks such as milks from goat, sheep, camel, donkey, yaks etc. are one of the important sources of nutrition in different parts of the world. In Mongolia, the highlands of the Afghanistan and Pakistan, Himalayas in India, Nepal, and Bhutan, Tibetan Plateau and in the Mountains China yak milk is the only source of milk. Cheese made from sheep and goat milk are categorized as gourmet food and many times regarded as protected designation of origin (PDO) status. Camel milk is used for medicinal food and donkey milk is suitable for children, aged people due to its hypo allergenic properties. These milks and milk products like cheese, naturally fermented milks and yoghurt are staple traditional foods in different parts of the world.

Abstract

Micronutrient (vitamin and mineral) deficiencies affect more than 2 billion people worldwide and are especially prevalent in developing countries including India. Conditions due to vitamin mineral deficiencies account for 7.3 percent of the global disease burden.Iron deficiency (anemia), vitamin A and iodine deficiency disorders continue to be a grim public health problem. Thus, elimination of vitamin and mineral deficiencies is essential to improve the overall health of the masses as well as to sustain economic growth and national development. Food fortification is an effective intervention to deliver vitamin and mineral rich foods to large populations. In addition to the prevention of vitamin and mineral deficiencies, food fortification is an effective measure to raise vitamin and mineral levels by moving the population towards consuming recommended dietary allowances for most micronutrients-making it a long–term and a sustainable strategy. India is the largest producer of milk in the world with 146.3 million tonnes and the consumption rate of milk and milk products by all age groups of people are high.Therefore, fortification of milk with mineral and vitamins could be a safe and effective strategy to fight these micronutrient deficiencies.

Abstract

In recent years microwave processing have attained increasing recognition in food industries particularly in drying and dehydration. During microwave processing, electromagnetic energy is supplied directly to the food material for volumetric heating. This provides rapid temperature rise throughout the material with reduced thermal gradients. This unique heating mechanism reduces processing time and saves energy. In-spite of advantages of microwave heating it leads to overheating in food material and formation of cold and hot spots if applied improperly during drying. To overcome these challenges different microwave assisted hybrid drying technologies have been developed by many researchers. These techniques are microwave assisted hot air drying, microwave assisted osmotic dehydration, microwave assisted vacuum drying, microwave- infrared assisted hot air drying, microwave assisted rotary drying. This chapter comprises the fundamentals of microwave and provides comprehensive update of microwave assisted hybrid drying processes for food and agricultural materials.