eChapters

Introduction

Biotechnology is defined as the ‘application of scientific and engineering principles to the processing of material by biological agents to provide goods and services’. The term ‘biotechnology’ is also used when a technique involving live organisms are employed to make or modify a product, improve plants or animals or develop microorganisms for specific uses. According to the definition of the Codex Alimentarius Commission (CAC 2001), modern biotechnology is defined as the application of (i) in vitro nucleic acid techniques, including recombinant deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and direct injection of nucleic acid into cells or organelles, or (ii) fusion of cells beyond the taxonomic family, that overcome natural physiological reproductive or recombination barriers, and that are not techniques used in traditional breeding and selection. Scientific developments of present world owe to processes and products of the field of biotechnology. Modern biotechnological advancements have played a major role in important branches of science such as agriculture, food processing, medicine and veterinary applications. Biotechnological interventions of the downstream processing applications include primary production areas namely breeding of crops and livestock, production of additives for food and feed and pharmaceuticals along with diagnostic tools. Inputs for food processing applications from biotechnology include biocatalysts such as enzymes, tracing food ingredients such as Genetically modified (GM) ingredients in end products of food and feed and food quality testing applications for food borne pathogens. Applications of modern biotechnology in form of genetically modified organisms have gained much importance in comparison to the downstream applications during food processing and food safety (Zhu, 2017). Food processing operations include transformation of harvested crop or animal produce into produce which are marketable with long shelf life and minimises waste and losses of raw produce in food chain and ensure their continuous availability in super market shelves. Food safety is an important area which assures of the food being safe for consumption. Food technological applications of modern biotechnology includes food enzymes that are important in various food processing applications in reactions involving lipids, carbohydrates and proteins, food fermentations to improve properties such as taste, flavour, texture, nutritional and shelf stability, food additives in form of bio preservatives, flavours, fragrances, genetically modified starter cultures, genetically modified crops, modern rapid diagnostic kits for food safety are discussed in detail.

Introduction of Food Industry

India is one of the major food producers in the world. The food sector contributes to about 28% of India's GDP. India stands at 1st position in the world for production of cereals, milk, livestock, banana and Mango, 2nd in producing fruits and vegetables and ranks amongst top 5 in producing rice, wheat, groundnut, tea, coffee, tobacco, spices, sugar and oilseeds. India's share in global production of fruits is 10% and vegetables are 13.7%. The current consumption of fruits and vegetables is approx Rs.2 lakh crores at current prices with an estimated growth rate of 11% per annum. The growth rate is higher than cereals and milk and comparable to meet consumption

Status of Food Processing Industry

The food processing industry in India is still in a sorry state. The rural population comprising 70% including small cities, consume less than 10% of the processed foods and vegetables, whereas 60% of the processed food is consumed in four major metropolitan cities and 30% in the state capitals and big cities. Another fact is that 40% of the processed food and vegetables produced in the country in terms of value are bought by institutional buyers like Hotels, Restaurants and Defense etc. The highest growth in domestic market has been in fruit drinks, tomato ketch up and Jams.

There is another fact that India is the largest milk producer in the world, however, organized industry accounts for less than 15% of the milk produce in India. It is estimated that there may be a total production of 1100 million tons of production of food products mainly food grains, oilseeds, sugarcane and fruits/vegetables during 2011-12 and leaving marketable surplus of 870 million tons.

7.1. Challenges in Milk Quality

Demand for milk and milk products in India is growing very rapidly, owing to urbanization, customer convenience, and the change from loose to packaged milk products. At present, the dairy sector is rising at about 10-12 per cent annually. Based on population growth projections and an increase in urbanization over the next four decades, India is projected to need approximately 600 million tonnes of milk per year to meet the demand for milk and milk products. This means that India’s milk production needs to grow at around 3.2 per cent CAGR for the next 40 years (FICCI, 2020).

Main reason of poor quantity of milk is due to unhygienic and poor condition of animal farms and dairies. Even due to high demand in foreign country we cannot export such poor quality of milk product. Many times, Indian milk products get rejected in foreign nations due to unhygienic milking milk contains high number of microbial counts. Reasons behind the quality affected in India are due to poor health of animal, polluted water and food and Unclean surrounding in farm. So, it is necessary to consider all this challenges in improving milk production. Currently most of the milking animals are not screened on regular interval of time. So, there is lots of chances that some diseases can transmitted to human beings. Farmers use antibiotics and chemical drugs to increase the production of milk this will also affect the quality of milk. These issues can be avoided by regular screening of animals in animal husbandry and also maintaining history records of health, feed etc. Quality of feed should be checked regularly. There must be pollution control in the feed and water used in cattle farms (Bhagyalaxmi, 2020).

Introduction

Proteins are the most abundant organic compounds constituting major part of the body. Chemically, proteins are nitrogen containing macromolecules and polymers of L α-amino acids, which serve a wide range of structural and biological functions in animal body. For example, connective tissue made up of collagen, metabolicenzymes, neuro transmitters,signal in gmolecules, structural components of cell membranes and cell organelles, etc. all are chemically proteins.

Before goinginto the details of protein metabolism, first, we need to understand that there are majorly two sources of proteins in our body: dietary protein and body protein. Dietary protein is taken in diet, while body protein indicates the protein and amino acids synthesized in animal body to fulfill the requirements for growth and development. The digestion of proteins will not be discussed here as it has been described in detail in chapter 12. Dietary protein is digested in presence of several enzymes such as trypsin, pepsin, chymotrypsin, aminopeptidases and carboxypeptidases and is converted into mono-, di- and oligopeptides in stomach and small intestine; and finally converted into amino acids. These amino acids are transported to the systemthrough intestinal mucosa via active transport, from where they enter into the cells for further metabolism. Therefore, ‘metabolismof proteins’ is more appropriatelylearnt as ‘metabolism of amino acids’.

Traditionally, Labour Laws have a protective function consisting of established standards both to protect workers in their workplace and to provide them a basic minimum level of living conditions. Alongwith this function, there also existed in most systems, a legal framework for the regulation of industrial relations between employers and workers. These functions had their impact on problems of development. The emphasis was more on labour legislation for its own sake, development being a separate proposition. This mutual lack of concern was perhaps due to historical factors. The most important aspect is the fact that in developed countries of the Western world, labour legislation followed the emergence of industrialization and in response to a demand for economic and social betterment of the workers, whereas in developing countries the emergence of labour laws preceded industrial growth.

Abstract

Pulse combustors provide an advantageous superposition of unsteady gas flow and high intensity sound waves. Such a combination does not only accelerate drying rates because of increased heat and mass transfer but also allows processing of liquids, pastes and agglomerated solids in a dispersed state due to aerodynamic impact from the high intensity sound wave. Over last decades, applications of pulse combustion in drying have been exploited continuously and different pulse combustion dryers have been designed and fabricated. In pilot tests and technical reports on these dryers, short drying time, high energy efficiency and product quality are generally reported, which cause that pulse combustion drying is regarded as a technology of the future in convective drying.

This chapter attempt to introduce basic knowledge and state-of the art about this emerging technology and summarizes some recent studies in pulse combustion drying and equipment design. Following a concise description of pulse combustion and pulse combustor, the basic types of pulse-combustion dryers are presented, including spray dryers, fluidized bed dryers, impinging dryers, and dryers of special design. The existing commercial applications and pilot test projects are described and potential applications are identified.

Abstract

Consumers increased response to new products with high sensory, organoleptic and nutritional potentials has impelled a search for new substitutes to processing methods. For several years, thermal processing was the main technology for producing safe products with long shelf lives, although in most cases losses of fresh flavors, vitamins, and some physicochemical characteristics were the price of safety and long-term stability. Pulsed electric field (PEF) processing as a non- thermal technique has been proven to inactivate microorganisms with minimal losses of flavor and food quality, possibly making it the answer to present-day consumer demands. In addition, the low processing temperatures used in this non- thermal technology allow the process to be nutrient preserving, energy efficient, which translates into lower costs and fewer environmental impacts. In this chapter, the the configuration of various PEF equipment, their electric configuration and recent application of this technique in processing of foods have been discussed in detail.

Introduction

Foods prepared by fermenting raw ingredients of plant or animal sources naturally or mixing it with the starter culture (s) containing functional micro flora is called fermented foods. The functional micro flora used in starter culture is responsible for biochemical and organoleptic alteration of the substrates into edible yields which are socially and culturally appropriate to consumers (Tamang et al., 2010a, Tamang et al., 2010b). Fermented food has its own characteristic microflora and this group of micro flora increases the nutritional value by increasing the levels of essential amino acids, vitamins, proteins, etc.

Fermented foods play a major role in meeting nutritional requirement and socio economic development of developing countries. They are important components of the diet as staples, adjuncts to staples, condiments and beverages. A wide variety of fermenting substrates are available such as cereals, pulses, soya beans, flowers, milk, fish, meat, etc. A wide majority of plants and their parts are often utilized in the preparation of starter culture (Deori et al., 2007, Deka and Sarma, 2010).

The raw material of foremost importance in bakery product is the wheat flour. Bakery units prefer the flour obtained by milling in roller flourmill with 70– 72 percent extraction. Flour quality may be defined as the ability of the flour to produce an attractive end product at competitive cost, under conditions imposed by the end product manufacturing unit. The concept of quality differs from producer and consumer point of view. However, in general, the term quality may refer to fitness of a raw material or a product for a particular process or consumer. For a consumer, the following parameters are important criteria of a product quality.

The art of confectionery manufacture date back to over 3000 years as per Egyptian records. Traditionally honey, boiled and concentrated sugar cane juices have been used in confectioneries. In modern times, alternative sweeteners from sources like corn and starches constitute an integral part of confectionery manufacture.

Owing to the huge variation in finished products as well as raw materials in food sector, Quality control has an extremely important role to play. Quality control aims at controlling variation to within a tolerable level by taking corrective actions. Statistical and non-statistical techniques are employed to measure, analyze and control variation in food products. Statistical process control, acceptance sampling and visual inspection are widely used in food and allied sectors.

Maintenance of quality and manufacture of a standard confectionery should involve a very close control of raw materials, instrumentation, and statistical analysis of finished product. Statistical evaluation with respect to finished product includes weight control, sensory evaluation and packaging tests. The quality standards are set by the quality control departments. Chemists may undertake preliminary analysis through visual inspection. Visual inspection is usually combined with sampling. This gives an idea of variation, cleanliness, infestation etc. in the sample.

India has emerged as the largest producer of milk in the World. This has boosted the confidence of producers, planners, dairy entrepreneurs and scientist alike. India has poised to play a major role in global dairy market in coming decade. The rapid growth of science and technology has positive impact on our life style and with strong trend of urbanization several demographic changes are likely to occur. There going to be ever increasing demand on the role of milk and milk products for human health. Accordingly, the demand for higher standards of milk products in terms of hygiene and safety of dairy products is to be followed. The competitiveness for the export of milk products among different dairy industry has increased in recent times due to GATT agreement. The biggest challenge before Indian dairy industry is the quality and safety of milk products indented for human consumption. Legal standards are made to have control over quality of food offered for sale and to safe guard the consumer form health hazards. It is therefore, imperative to determine different parameters that define product quality and safety. The purpose is to ensure production and distribution of products within well defined and accepted standards. This chapter deals with various parameters of product testing in order to maintain requisite prescribed standards.

Milk is a product of biological origin and is a suitable vehicle to accommodate any additive without apparent changes in its look. The quality of milk and its products depends upon quality of raw milk used in their manufacture, processing and handling conditions. It is therefore, necessary to check quality of raw milk to assess its suitability for processing, through various quick tests called “Platform Tests”

Raw milk quality assessment

(A) At collection center: - Milk from various suppliers is generally collected at dairy factory or privately owned collection centers located in marked area of milk sheds. The quantum of supply may vary from 2 – 100 Liters. As each supplier has to be paid in relation to quantity and quality of his produce, it is important to draw samples and ascertain its quality by performing quick tests for the purpose of acceptance or rejection.

Sampling procedures - The sampling procedure differs according to the nature of material and the purpose for which the sample is required. The sample collected for chemical analysis should be representative of the entire batch. Thorough mixing with proper instrument is essential to ensure representative sample. Samples for chemical analysis are to be delivered the same day for testing. If un-avoided, add small amount of preservative (Formaldehyde) to prevent deterioration and bear label to the effect.

Sample from single container – The procedure involved is thorough mixing of contents. If it is small container the contents should be poured from one vessel to another with swirling. In case of can the contents should be mixed with the help of plunger which should be moved up and down and sideways for about 10-15 times. The sample is then drawn with the help of dipper from different levels and collected in clean and dry sample bottles.

India has achieved a commendable position of being the highest milk producing country in the world. Nearly 110 million tons of milk per annum is contributed by small and marginal farmers having 2-3 milch animals which are scattered in lakhs of villages across the length and breath of India. The poor socio-economic conditions are serious constraints in producing raw milk of good quality. The quality of milk is further deteriorated during subsequent handling and transportation. Milk being a product of biological origin, is extremely vulnerable to attack by microbes. It is also a good vehicle for additives and adulterants without any apparent changes in its appearance. Thus, milk is susceptible to several post-secretion changes, some natural and some man-made.

Indian dairy industry faces a mammoth task to meet the world quality standards, particularly in the present context of globalization and increasing quality conscious consumers. In view of the highly perishable nature of milk soon after it is secreted, it is important to monitor its quality by having a firmly installed quality assurance programme along the entire production-to-supply chain. This can be possible with application of sensitive, accurate and rapid methodologies as a tool in quality assurance programmes.

Quality comprises of several attributes ranging from physical, chemical, technological and bacteriological through nutritional to aesthetic. All dairy plants have a quality assurance laboratory (Fig. 8.1) and usually follow chemical quality control with the intention of payments to contractors/producers, processing of milk and meeting mandatory requirements for end products. Quality is judged both by objective and subjective tests.

We all are familiar with the word “quality”. If we bring some fruits or vegetables from the market, the other family members will reflect on their quality by making observations such as: fresh or stale, good or bad quality or inferior product, etc. These observations are perceptions of consumers based on the sensory attributes of the fruit or vegetable colour, appearance, touch, smell or taste.

The quality characteristics of food that are acceptable to consumers are comprehended under the term “Food Quality. It includes external factors such as appearance (size, shape, colour, gloss, and consistency); internal factors (chemical, physical, microbiological) and characteristics/ specifications prescribed under the Government laws/standards. If consumer’s perceptions regarding quality of food are not positive he or she either will not purchase the material or will be paying less compared to when the consumer has positive perception about the quality.

The relationship between quality, profitability and market share has been well established. In the quest of quality, the dairy business is passing through revolutionary changes and the need for such changes has been very well realized. The leaders have initiated the process of setting vision and are working hard to provide the basic infrastructure with necessary resources. This has become a point of vital importance as the nation has now captured the first rank in milk production globally and is now ready and set to march ahead in the global race for dairy products market. Our country has great potential to export the dairy products such as cheese particularly Mozzarella, Feta, and indigenous products such as ghee, khoa, chhana, paneer, and array of sweets. Food items or dairy products to be traded in the international markets should be manufactured in accordance with global accepted norms and standards. In order to improve the quality of milk and milk products the Government of India is focusing on “Clean Milk Production”. As a dairy technologists and entrepreneurs, we must ensure production of quality products.

Abstract

Determination of quality of wheat is very important because quality requirement of an individual product vary from one another. Flour quality can be defined as the ability of the flour to produce a uniformly good end product. Flour quality factors can be divided into two basic groups: those that are inherent in the wheat as a result of the genetic make up and the changes brought about by growing conditions; secondly those factors that might be altered during the process of converting wheat into flour Wheat flour constituents play an important role in determining the quality of flour. The flour quality for baking could be assessed by measuring the physical, chemical and rheological characteristics.

Wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) is one of the major cereal consumed globally in various form as food. The powder of wheat flour is prepared by grinding of wheat seeds. Soft wheat flour has low gluten content that causes its crumbly texture. However, hard wheat flour has high gluten content of about 12-14% and has elastic toughness due to which it has good shape once its baked. Wheat flour is a basic ingredient in India’s famous flatbreads, and it can also be a key ingredient in addressing major health concerns in India.

Abstract

India has become not only self sufficient in food grains but has also emerged as net exporter of wheat and rice. Acute famines in India have practically been eliminated, thanks to increased food availability at the national level, improved early warning systems and expanding infrastructure for more rapid transport of food grains and other products to needy areas. However, the existing post management system, strategies and policies don’t seem to match new challenges. Despite government intervention in pricing and procurement of food grains, primarily wheat and paddy, India continues to suffer heavily on account of losses and wastages incurred during the post harvest stages, which are more manmade than natural. Some losses have already occurred before the arrival of food grains in the regulated and wholesale markets and continue till food grains reach their destination. What contribute to continuing losses and wastages are improper post harvest handling, government policies and their implementation, which even stifle growth and modernisation of grain markets and processors.

Introduction

Food grains have been the key component of the human diet for thousands of years and have played a vital role in framing human civilization. Rice, wheat, and maize, and to a lesser extent, coarse grains are major staples, crucial to the daily endurance of billions of people around the world. Cereal grains are consumed by more than 50% of world population to meet daily calorie requirements. Most grains undergo a milling process that ideally removes the outer bran (pericarp) and germ layers; catering to consumer market requirements. To a farmer, yield is the most prominent aspect. As the grain moves along the supply chain, and as the product reaches the market, quality becomes the key determinant of its sale-ability and economic value. Grain quality is defined by a range of physical and compositional properties where threshold necessities are set according to end consumer use requirements. Most industries and consumer markets have become habituated over the years to demand grain with specific attributes. Where consumers are close to the source of grain production (e.g. in local markets), their own preferences and the laws of supply and demand control the grain quality. However, where grain is traded over large distances, particularly internationally, consumers almost have no direct influence on quality, requiring regulatory standards to be established and imposed to protect consumer rights. Therefore in the grain supply chain, all points have effects with respect to grain quality.

Radiofrequency (RF) pasteurization is an emerging thermal processing technology that uses electromagnetic energy to generate rapid and volumetric heating within food materials. This chapter introduces the principles underlying RF heating and explains how alternating electric fields interact with polar molecules and ions to produce heat. It examines RF system configuration, electrode arrangements, packaging considerations and the operational workflow from raw-material preparation to post-treatment cooling and quality evaluation. Particular attention is given to microbial inactivation, enzyme control, uniform heating, nutrient and bioactive-compound retention, colour and structural preservation. The chapter also discusses technical limitations, hotspot formation, packaging challenges, nutritional considerations and current industrial constraints associated with RF processing.

Advancements on sugar processing

India has popped out as one of the largest sugar processing country throughout the world. Through the collaboration of research and development carried out in the field of sugar processing, this industry has witnessed the vast changes in term of technology. Important considerations such as productivity improvement and cost reduction were the main objectives in the field of sugar processing. Sulphur dioxide was earlier used but afterwards lime treatment in clarified juice helped in the processing of white sugar from sugar cane. Since then the continuous progress and improvement has been made and advanced techniques are introduced for manufacturing of sugar with modern tools.

Ramjeawon (2004) reported that farmers and agriculture workers grow sugar cane and beet root for sugar production,providing about 20 kg per capita and that is equivalent to almost 13 percent energy requirement. Fechter et al. (2001) reported that production of the white sugar was focused more on juices rather than molasses which were taken as the raw material. Various processes such as ultra-filtration, de-mineralization and de-colorization were used for the production of white sugar. The traditional refining process wascheaper, and effective in terms of purification and juice purification was the method used for the processing of white sugar directly from the sugar cane. Crystallization was one of the process which is used for increasing the recovery of sucrose and it reduces the molasses production. Chromatography was used in the sugar industry for the separation of sucrose. Another method was ion exchange demineralization which was used in the sugar industry for the removal of minerals from the liquid sugar. Later adsorption has been incorporated to be used de-odorization and de-pigmentation. Membrane filtration is latest technique used in the process which was used for maintaining the quality of white sugar by removing unwanted particle from the juice. Velásquez et al.,(2018) reported that thermal processes are also used for the production of sugar from sugar cane. Non centrifugal cane sugar processing is used for this purpose and the product is obtained by evaporating the sugarcane which has the unique flavor and aroma. Later the product is used as the sweetener and has a traditional characteristics flavor and optimum nutrition.