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India has an enormous wealth of cattle, which is crucial to the development of the socioeconomic status of millions of rural households as well as the country’s economy. In addition to giving millions of people access to lowcost nutritious food, this industry plays a significant role in boosting family incomes and creating gainful employment in rural areas, notably among landless laborers, small and marginal farmers, and women.

The world’s largest population of milch cattle lives in India. In 2020, there were almost 906 million tones of milk produced worldwide, with India being the top producer with a 22 percent share. Annual Growth Rate of milk production in 2019-20 in India was 5.69 per cent. Highest growth rate in milk production was found to be 14.31 per cent in Karnataka. In 2021, the Indian dairy market had a value of INR 13,174 billion.

With recent work it has become clear that bacterial societies are very complex. Gene expression in bacterial communities are heterogenous. The heterogeneous gene expression contributes towards the biofilms in fluctuating environments which needs to be understood.Technique like single-cell analysis can help in the investigation of more complex communities. Recently, Jahid and Ha, (2012) have written a review on microbial biofilms of produce and the future challenges to food safety many outbreaks have been observed involving food- borne pathogens. Therefore, there is an urdent need for the safety of foods especially against microbial attacks and biofilm formation as they cause a risk to public health. Medically, the pathogenic microorganisms form biofilm- associated with the epithelial or endothelial lining which are embedded in the lungs, intestinal or vaginal mucus layer, the teeth or other medical implant surfaces or formed intracellularly (Dewasthale et al., 2018). Teichoic acids are characteristic major components of the cell surface in Gram-positive bacteria.

Ali Demirci et al., (2014) studied the reactors with biofilms which are used to produce many value added products. These include organic acids, alcohols, enzymes, antibiotics, bacteriocins and many more. Many bioreactor designs favor the biofilm formation in a reactor. The biofilm reactors are utilized for fermentation and bioconversion of large amount of biomass. Recently, the biofilm reactors have been applied for production of many value-added products with novel designs. According to Ercan and Demirci (2015) the biofilms can cause both detrimental and beneficial effects in the environment. Biofilms in bioreactors has many advantages due to the membrane fouling which reduces the cost. Higher biomass density can be utilized and the operation is more stable.Biofilm reactors are commercially being utilized for waste water treatment, bench and pilot-scale production of value-added products. In order to run the biofilm reactor at optimum conditions it is important to understand the fundamentals of biofilm formation, the different properties

Acinetobacter baumannii is an opportunistic pathogen giving rise to nosocomial infections causing threat to public health. Studies of biofilm-forming genes was done in A. baumannii isolates by PCR technique. To study the relationships of genes a technique based on PCR sequences along with multilocus sequence typing (MLST) were utilized (Saeed et al., 2020). Goudarzi, Mehdi et al. (2019) studied the genetic diversity and biofilm formation analysis of Staphylococcus aureus causing urinary tract infections in Tehran, Iran. The biofilm forming and adhesion encoding genes were studied along with distribution of different agr and spa types in S. aureus isolates by PCR screening and multiplex PCR. The workers found that the ability to produce biofilm was higher among MRSA strains as compared to MSSA strains. The most prevalent biofilm forming gene was icaD (77.3%), followed by icaA (76%), icaB (57.3%) and icaC (50.7%). Acinetobacter baumannii is a nosocomial pathogen which is commonly present in hospitals and is a causal organism of many diseases. A. baumannii isolates have been known as multidrug-resistant (MDR). For controlling such serious organism only molecular techniques have been found to be effective. 

Joana et al.(2016) have written a critical review on biofilms and have discussed newer methods to study biofilms. These have given a deep knowledge on the physiology, structure and composition of biofilms. More polar amino acids were present in ABPs but QSPs were made up of higher number of neutral amino acids.This helps in recognition. Web application WebLogo help in generating sequence logos (Crooks et al., 2004). The uncharged polar amino acid is present at the first, third and fifth positions.The basis of SVM model is on the amino acid composition of the peptides. The Weka model is based on selected eight inputs which is trained on the NT5 dataset and is accurate, sensitive and specific.Peptide drugs are FDA approved and a total of 242 sequences of biotech peptides/proteins are available at the Drug Bank database. To identify potential anti-biofilm activity for characterization the peptide sequences are submitted on the module of dPABBs. The prediction outcomes are displayed under the ‘Putative ABPs’ section(http://ab-openlab.

According to Fereshteh et al. (2020) microorganisms use biofilm to protect themselves against the harmful effects of the host body immune system and the surrounding environment. This helps them to survive against the anti-microbial agents. Inhibition of bacterial biofilm formation is very time consuming and expensive. Newer computational tools have been found to be a good option to predict the inhibition of biofilm peptides. In a computational prediction tool a large number of peptide sequences can be screened to select the peptides for validation. Vectors are extracted from the peptide primary structure and classification algorithms are carried out which includes SVM, random forest and k-nearest neighbour to evaluate their performance. Using a combination of features, helps in good evaluation. National Institute of Health (NIH) has found out that 80% of bacterial pathogens form biofilms and their multicellular structure makes them resistant to the hosts’ defense systems and traditional antimicrobials than planktonic bacteria. Recently, the use of Antimicrobial peptides

Biofilms are resistant to antibiotics even at high concentrations (Costerton et al., 1999).This could happen when the diffusion of the antibiotic within the biofilm matrix is inefficient and results in slow growth rate of biofilm cells (Davey et al., 2000), there could be the presence of persistent cells and antibiotic-resistant small-colonies (Hogan and Kolter, 2002; Kolenbrander, 2000).Studies have proved that antibiotics can inhibit biofilm formation. An antibiotic azithromycin, is known to inhibit Pseudomonas aeruginosa biofilm. Biofilm colonies become resistant at higher concentrations of the antibiotics whereas at low concentrations these can be induced (Mah and OToole, 2001). P.aeruginosa is commonly present in the lungs of patients infested with cystic fibrosis. The clinical isolates show resistance to azithromycin (MIC>64 pg/ ml).However, low doses of azithromycin have shown improvement in lung function in patients with cystic fibrosis (Borriello et al., 2004). If antibiotics are given at low concentrations (below the MIC) than it induces biofilm formation in a variety of bacterial species. Sub-MIC concentrations of tobramycin can induce biofilm formation in P. aeruginosa. The use of antibiotics in agriculture, as growth promoters have shown to expose bacteria to low levels of the drugs and has caused havoc (Smith et al., 2002). Rachid et al. 

According to Li and Tian (2012) a pure-culture planktonic growth of bacteria is rarely found in natural environments.There is a physical interaction between the bacterial cells in biofilms (Kolenbrander, 2002; Watnick and Kolter,2000).The bacteria can organize into groups and can form well-organized communities. They also communicate for coordinated activities (Davey and O toole,2000; Watnick et al., 2000; Nadell et al., 2009). Quorum-sensing mechanisms are common in prokaryotic and single-celled eukaryotic organisms like fungi (van Bodman et al, 2008; Sordi and Muhlschlegal, 2009). For any biofilm structure to develop a high level of cell density is important (Kolenbrander et al., 2002; Kuramitsu et al., 2007 and Webb et al., 2003) and also for checking the effect of antibiotics against planktonic organisms in exponential growth phase using MIC and MBC.This can predict the antibiotic efficacy against rapidly dividing bacteria in acute infections. Papanna, Shobharani and Agrawal Renu (2010) studied the interception of quorum sensing signal molecule

The biofilm formation is usually assayed by using Congo Red Agar (CRA) plate test. According to a method developed by Freeman et al., (1989) the isolates are stored in nutrient agar slants and screened for biofilm formation ability using CRA plates. Biofilm forming strains are observed as dark black colonies while others as red colonies on the CRA plates. Recently, the concept of these biofims have changed with new imaging technologies, biochemical methods and molecular ecosystem biology tools. A biofilm structure can be observed in 3-D form to the nano-scale level (Neu and Lawrence, 2015). A lot of studies are being conducted on the physiology of the biofilm cells, the genotypic and phenotypic variation among the biofilm community, as well as the biofilm metabolome, proteome and transcriptome (Raes and Bork, 2008). This will help in the the development of efficient methods to control deleterious biofilms (clinical biofilms, food contaminants, biofouling on industrial equipment and on ship hulls) and to enhance and modulate beneficial ones

Biofilms play an important part in biotechnology, immunology, biofouling and biodeterioration (Fleming and Wingender, 2001; Dunne, 2002). When the pathogenic cells adhere to the surface, it has been found that the transcription of the EPS genes get stimulated (Dunne, 2002). If EPS gene expression are monitored it can provide a good understanding of biofilm phenotypes (Allison and Sutherland, 1997; Helm and Naumann, 1995; Petersen et al., 2005). EPS serves many functions. It also enables the bacteria to capture nutrients (Pontefract,1991).The formation of biofilm goes through a mechanism which is different from species to species. Even the matrix thickness can be different from 0.2 to 1.0pm depending on the species and doubling time of the cells as thickness of 10 to 30 nm has been found in some bacteria species (Sleytr,1997). The cells secrete polysaccharides, proteins, nucleic acids and glycoproteins. Adherence on solid surfaces by microorganisms is a very complicated process that depends mostly on extracellular molecule production (Czaczyk and Myszka, 2007). The biosynthesis of EPS provides an optimal environment in which genetic material between the cells can be exchanged. This is needed for cell identification and the antigenic properties are helpful in serological characterization of the cells. Among the various compounds of extracellular carbohydrates are acetate esters, pyruvtes, formates, succinates, polysaccharides and proteins (Sutherland, 2001a).

Microbial life abounds on a solid substrate. Water and some nutrients are sufficient to allow the microbial construction called biofilm. Biofilm-associated infections (BAI) can enhance chronic infections in which the bacterial pathogens can persist causing cross-contamination of the food products.

Giaouris et al. (2014) worked on the meat processing and biofilm formation by foodborne bacteria. Work on seafoods has been well worked by Mizan et al. (2015). Habimana et al. (2010) studied them in feed industry on Salmonella versus host resident flora strains. Lin et al. (2017) have studied the characteristics of some food borne pathogens. In a study by Rao et al. (2020) cold atmospheric plasma can be a solution to prevent biofilms.Ferriol-Gonzalez et al. (2020) worked out that bacteriophages can be helpful to remove biofims. According to Przekwas et al. (2020) in early stage of growth of the biofilm use of ascorbic acid can be helpful for the removal of biofilms. Apples can be protected from pathogenic bacteria by protecting them using harmless bacteria. It leads towards the development of alternative foodborne-pathogen-control strategies. Listeria monocytogenes is a big concern in the NE part of India.

There are many bacteria and fungi which produce biofilms. These are made up of living, reproducing microorganisms. These microbes form communities and adhere tightly to the surfaces and are resistant to many antibiotics. Many pathogenic microorganisms form biofilms which are difficult to be removed and are harmful.Such microbial colonies produce an extracellular polymeric substance (EPS) to protect them. The dental plaque was the first documented evidence of microbial biofilms. When such microorganisms get a moist environment they attach themselves to any object and reproduce forming an attachment by secreting a slimy, glue-like substance. It is possible with metals, plastics, natural materials, medical implants, kitchen counters, contact lenses, walls of a hot tub or swimming pool. Initially it was the investigation of many scientists to show the presence of biofilms

Beneficial effects of biofilms have also been shown (Rosche et al., 2009) especially in agriculture (Bogino et al., 2013; Berlanga and Guerrero, 2016) where it can be utilized as a biological control agents. They are used as biofertilizers to enhance crop production (Timmusk et al., 2017), hazardous pollutants can be removed (Irankhah et al., 2019). 

Product Characteristics and Packaging Requirements:

The key raw materials for sugar confectionery are sugar (60 - 65%), glucose, citric acid and flavoured essences. Confectionery is hygroscopic in nature and requires protection against the ingress of moisture, and exposure to high temperature (as far as possible).

A candy or confectionery product may be adversely affected by many things. Hard candy, brittles and crunch products are most sensitive to moisture and absorb water vapour fairly rapidly from the atmosphere. Various gums are less sensitive while some creams tend to lose moisture considerably.

This process involves building up a coating of sugar and sometimes of other things, layer by layer. Panning is one of those processes that the confectionery and pharmaceutical industries have in common.

The coating of confectionery with sugar using a pan is very ancient. Originally, these products were made in an open pan suspended over a fire by chains. Apparently the operator swung the pan by hand, coating the product with sugar syrup which was then allowed to crystallise. The normal modern small-scale method is to use a rotating dragee pan (Fig.No.19.1).

These are elliptical vessels made traditionally of copper, but now more commonly of stainless steel. The pan is equipped to be rotated and usually there is a system for supplying and extracting air and possibly with a system for spraying in the sugar syrup. Typical pan sizes are between 1.5 and 0.9 m in diameter although smaller sizes are used for small-scale work.

These products were originally flavoured with the herb marshmallow but a modem marshmallow is a foam that has been stabilised by a gelling agent. The traditional material for marshmallows is egg albumen which acts both as a foaming and gelling agent - this gives light, soft gel. Gelatine is now more commonly used, and once again can act as both a whipping and gelling agent. A gelatine marshmallow is soft and rubbery but heavier than an egg albumen one. Further gelling agents, e.g., pectin, agar and starch all give a soft, short textured gel. These gelling agents have the advantage of being vegetable products but have the disadvantage of normally needing a whipping agent as well. Enzyme-modified soya products have also recently become available for this use.

Methods of Marshmallow Manufacturing:

Tabletting is the area where sugar confectionery and pharmaceutical manufacture come closest, as the machines are similar the process can also be similar. Confectioners normally try to make tablets as hard as possible whereas pharmaceutical tablets are normally made to be fairly soft.

Tablets are made by compressing a powder in a die. Under pressure the powder fuses and is ejected as a tablet. The problem of tabletting is to produce a powder that will flow freely when poured into the die but bonds satisfactorily when compressed. Some materials are available in a directly compressible form. One example is sorbitol, which goes some way to explain the popularity of pressed sorbitol tablets with manufacturers. If directly compressible materials are not being used then the material must be granulated before being tabletted.

Granulation

Tabletting materials can be prepared by a number of different methods as outlined below:

Lozenges are solid preparations that contain one or more medicaments, usually in a flavored, sweetened base, that are intended to dissolve or disintegrate slowly in the mouth. They can be prepared by molding (gelatin and/or fused sucrose and sorbitol base) or by compression of sugar-based tablets. Molded lozenges are sometimes referred to as pastilles, whereas compressed lozenges may be referred to as troches. They are used for patients who cannot swallow solid oral dosage forms well as for medications designed to be released slowly to yield a constant level of drug in the oral cavity or to bathe the throat tissues in a solution of the drug. Lozenges historically have been used for the relief of minor sore throat pain and irritation and have been used extensively to deliver topical anaesthetics and antibacterial.

Advantages

1. It is easy to administer to both paediatric and geriatric patients.
2. It has a pleasant taste and will extend the time a quantity of drug remains in the oral cavity to elicit local activity.

15.1 Fondant

The word fondant is said to come from the French verb fondre to dissolve. Confectionery fondants are normally made by boiling a sugar and glucose syrup in order to concentrate it before the mixture is cooled with beating to produce fine sucrose crystals. Some fondants used in baking are made by mixing icing sugar with a sucrose and glucose mixture. The icing sugar has a small particle size because it has been milled whereas the sucrose in a crystallised fondant has small crystals. It is possible to make a fondant using dextrose instead of sucrose. Crystalline dextrose has a positive heat of solution, i.e. heat is absorbed, and this produces a marked cooling effect which goes well with a peppermint flavour, but one which is not particularly attractive economically, but they can be in some other countries.

The art in producing high-boiled sweets with satisfactory shelf life is manufacturing boilings which contain the minimum amount of residual moisture and a satisfactory balance between cane or beet sugar, and glucose syrup or invert sugar syrup. The main physical change during the storage of high-boiled sweets is the formation of small crystals in the confection, usually referred to as graining, due to recrystallisation of sucrose. These spoil the appearance and cause an unpleasant roughness on the tongue.

For high-boiled sweets it is impossible, using the normal proportions of cane or beet sugar (sucrose) and glucose syrup, to obtain a product of 97% solids content, which is not supersaturated with respect to sucrose.

In practice, however, one-and-a-half parts of sugar (sucrose) to one part of forty-two DE glucose syrup will produce a high-boiled sweet stable against graining.

Chocolate is almost unique as a food in that it is solid at normal room temperatures yet melts easily within the mouth. This is because the main fat in it, which is called cocoa butter, is essentially solid at temperatures below 25^oC when it holds all the solid sugar and cocoa particles together. This fat is, however, almost entirely liquid at body temperature, enabling the particles to flow past one another, so the chocolate becomes a smooth liquid when it is heated in the mouth. Chocolate also has a sweet taste that is attractive to most people.

The first known cocoa plantations were established by the Maya in the lowlands of south Yucatan about 600 AD. Cocoa trees were being grown by the Aztecs of Mexico and the Incas of Peru when the Europeans discovered central America. The beans were highly prized and used as money as well as to produce a drink known as chocolatl. The beans were roasted in earthenware pots and crushed between stones, sometimes using decorated heated tables and mill stones, similar to those illustrated in Figure 1.1.

The development of a recipe for chocolate should be based on three criteria:

(i) The intended market or use;

(ii) The limitation being placed on material and production costs;

(iii) The desired quality.

The amount of fat present in the chocolate will affect the flow properties, and fat content must therefore be varied according to the intended use.

Some point to remember while manufacturing chocolate:

1. To maintain proper viscosity if fat content is increased then sugar content should also be increased.
2. Milk chocolate requires lower fat content than dark chocolate.
3. Addition of emulsifier like commercial lecithin can save upto 5% of added cocoa butter.

Cocoa butter, also called the obroma oil, is a pale-yellow, edible fat extracted from the cocoa bean. It is used to make chocolate, as well as some ointments, toiletries, and pharmaceuticals. Cocoa butter has a cocoa flavor and aroma. Its melting point is just below human body temperature. Cocoa butter that has been refined by neutralization with an alkaline solution and decoloured with for example bentonite, activated carbon etc. Subsequent deodorization can also be applied. The type of process used may affect the quality of the cocoa butter. For example, a too high deodorization temperature or a too severe alkalization can completely alter its setting (solidification) characteristics. High-quality raw materials are needed to make the best quality cocoa butter. The other important factors for high quality are the origin of the beans and the processing conditions used. Press cocoa butter, which is most commonly used in the chocolate industry, is only filtered and (partly) deodorized to obtain the desired flavour. Cocoa butter contains a high proportion of saturated fats as well as monounsaturated oleic acid, which typically occurs in each triglyceride.

Dried Cocoa Bean have chemical composition as: The shell (testa) represents 10-14% dry weight of the cocoa bean, while the kernel or cotyledon is made up of most of the remaining 86-90%. The cotyledon confers characteristic flavours and aromas of chocolate and is composed of two types of parenchyma storage cells.

Before processing, the quality ofbeans is evaluated for the following indicators:

1. Degree of fermentation
2. Moisture content (maximum 6%)
3. Number of defects
4. Number of broken beans
5. Bean count (number per 100 g)

Introduction

Botanical name of cocoa is Theobroma cacao and family is Malvaceae. The cocoa bean, also cacao bean or simply cocoa or cacao, is the dried and fully fermented fatty seed of Theobroma cacao, from which cocoa solids and cocoa butter are extracted. Cocoa flavour is the most distinct feature of chocolate, thus cocoa beans are the basis of chocolate. Dried cocoa beans are usually processed into cocoa butter, which contains fat between 56% and 58%, made up of a mixture of triglycerides. Cocoa butter with this composition is good for making chocolate and has favourable hardness and a melting point of body temperature. Theobroma cacao originated from the Jungle of the Amazon in Brazil. Theobroma cacao consists of two subspecies: the Cacao, a subspecies known as the Criollo, which can be found in Central and South America, and spharocarpum, which is also called theForastero. The Criollo has superior and fine flavour. The pods are red and the beans have no color. Forastero has a green pod

A glucose syrup is defined as ‘A purified and concentrated aqueous solution of nutritive saccharides derived from starch’, and having the following characteristics:

1. Dry matter of not less than 70%.
2. A dextrose equivalent (DE), expressed as d-glucose, of not less than 20% based on dry matter.
3. A sulphated ash content of not more than 1% on a dry basis.

Starch has a DE value of zero, whilst dextrose, the final end product of starch hydrolysis, has a DE value of 100. For the lay person, the term dextrose equivalent or DE can be regarded as an indication of how far the conversion process from starch to dextrose has gone. While technically DE is a measure of the total reducing sugars present in a glucose syrup.

These hydrolysates are dried conversion products available in a powdered form. Up to 20 DE they are normally referred to as malto-dextrins or hydrolised cereal solids. Above 20 DE they are more commonly termed spray dried glucose syrup solids.

Applications

Spray dried hydrolysates find application in a wide range of processed and convenience foods. Principally as filler/carrier and sweetness reducer.

They are ideally suited for blending into powdered formulations, and serve the following purposes.

As filler/carrier, they can

(1) Reduce loss of volume in contents on storage or in transit;

(2) Absorb fats and oils to retain free-flowing properties;

The first use of milk in a solid chocolate product is commonly attributed to Daniel Peter in 1875. Milk chocolate is the most popular type of chocolate, and milk ingredients are critical in delivering the highly desired properties and taste profile to consumers. Milk ingredients also have a significant effect on chocolate processing.

Milk is one of the most complex raw materials used by the food industry. A typical bovine whole milk has a solids content of about 13.5%, comprising about 3.4% protein, 4.6% fat, 4.7% lactose and 0.7% minerals.

Milk proteins can be classified as either caseins or whey proteins - typically found in milk

Release agents are used to grease equipment used for manufacturing certain types of sugar confectionery for easy removal of the sweet.

High-viscosity, purified mineral oil is most commonly used material suitable for all sweet manufacturing purposes. Mineral oil is neutral in taste and has little odour. It should be used carefully: there is a legal limit of 0 2% in the United Kingdom.

Acetylated mono-glycerides have excellent release properties. A number of alternatives based on vegetable oil are available, but the development of rancidity on the film surface on the sweets during storage is the major difficulty in the use of vegetable oil

Definition

‘Whipping agent’ are a wide variety of materials to describe their role in confectionery manufacture as a means of holding air introduced into a product, to produce a uniform dispersion of air cells within the confection leading to a lower specific weight and considerable modification to the texture.

Stable foams cannot be obtained by whipping high concentration sugar solutions without the presence of a ‘surface-active’ agent.

Many types of proteins have whipping properties and those used in the sweet industry are:

(a) Egg albumen, crystal powdered and spray dried;

(b) High Bloom gelatine and gelatine hydrolysates;

(c) Skimmed milk in spray dried form;

(d) Whey, or whey in a mixture with skimmed milk;

1.3 Dextrose

Sweets which include dextrose have different eating qualities to those made with sucrose and glucose syrup alone. Recipes should be balanced so that the sucrose to dextrose ratio achieves the required product texture.

The incorporation of dextrose will increase the likelihood that crystallization will occur either on store or during manufacture. Replacement usage levels for dextrose normally lie between 5% and 15% of the Sucrose content

2.1 Manufacturing Process of Sugar

There are a number of steps in producing raw sugar from cane

1. Sugarcane receiving and unloading (receive the cane at the factory and unload it from the transport vehicles)
2. Sugarcane preparation (cutting and shredding cane to prepare it for juice extraction)
3. Extraction of Sugarcane Juice (two technologies are in common use; milling or diffusion)
4. Juice clarification (remove suspended solids from

Confectionery is the art of making confections, which are food items that contains high quantity of sugar and carbohydrates.

Traditional confectionery goes back to ancient times, and continued to be eaten through the Middle Ages into the modern era.

Confections include sweet foods, sweetmeats, digestive aids that are sweet, elaborate creations, and something amusing and frivolous. Confectionery, delicacies or sweetmeats that have sugar as a principal ingredient, combined with coloring matter and flavoring and often with fruit or nuts.

Confections are low in micronutrients and protein but high in calories.

Food processing sector in India has largest segment of bakery with more than 1.3 million tonnes of production from organized sector and 1.7 million tons from 1,000,000 unorganized sectors. India is second largest producer of biscuits globally. Our bakery industry is positioned third in generation of revenues among processed food sector.

Confectionery is an vital food item of great acceptance among wide range of population. It has been relished as a major food delicacy from ancient times. The term confectionery is describes a spectrum of sweet goods and takes on different meaning depending on the country in which it is used, for example in the United Kingdom the term applies to any sweet product including cakes. In the United States confectionery is candy and includes sugar confectionery and chocolate confectionery.

Confectionery fills an especially direct need; the sugar of agreeableness joined with exquisite flavors, smells and mouthfeel affects a basically transitory feeling of thriving and joy. Sugar confectionery has been made all through the long haul with extending headway and it remain alive in unlimited plans following a changed levels of agreeableness, flavors just as scents, feel, appearance and tastes

In the Modern era of globalisation, a wide variety of miscellaneous bakery products are available. It is hard to acknowledge all of them in this chapter due to the unlimited specialities of bakers across the world. The writing here in this chapter is limited to formulation & technology used for the production of buns, pizza base, chapatti, wafers, pretzels, crackers and muffins individually.

The history of cakes traces back to ancient times where Egyptians first practiced advanced baking skills. However, the modern-day cakes are said to have evolved in Europe around mid of 17th century. Today cake products and its derivatives are widely found all around the world. Cakes are sweet baked products rich in sugar, fat and egg with a tender bite and a pleasant flavour. They are basically protein foams, stabilized by gelatinized starch. Quality of cake depends on number of factors like selection of ingredients, balancing of recipe, optimum mixing and baking procedures. Good quality cakes are characterized by large volume, uniform crumb with fine cells and pore size.

The word biscuit drives from Danisbiscoctus which is the Latin word used for twice-cooked bread in Britain and refers to bread rusks made for sailors (ship biscuits) as long as the Middle Ages. Biscuits are thin, flat, baked and crisp items made comprising flour, sugar and fat as the key ingredients. These usually have a moisture content of less than 4% and have a long shelf life, maybe six months or more, when packed in moisture-proof containers. They may be a part of routine diets, sweets, luxury gifts, nutritional items, baby foods, pet foods, chocolates and creams added, etc. The appearance and eating qualities determine the appeal to consumers.

Bread is considered as one of the oldest processed foods to be known, traditionally prepared using wheat flour and water and baked on hot stones. The process of bread making involves hydration of protein and formation of gluten network ABSTRACT 70 Bakery and Confectionery Technology upon mixing, the evolution of carbon dioxide owing to the action of yeast on sugars and aeration of the mixture by incorporation of the gas followed by coagulation of the dough upon heating it in the oven. 

As the flow properties of liquids play such an essential role in our daily lives, whether intentionally or unintentionally, no one is truly an absolute beginner when it comes to rheology. Consumers not only focus on new and improved products but also consider the texture of the products e.g thick and creamy

Wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) is one of the major cereal consumed globally in various form as food. The powder of wheat flour is prepared by grinding of wheat seeds. Soft wheat flour has low gluten content that causes its crumbly texture. However, hard wheat flour has high gluten content of about 12-14% and has elastic toughness due to which it has good shape once its baked. Wheat flour is a basic ingredient in India’s famous flatbreads, and it can also be a key ingredient in addressing major health concerns in India.

The word “baked products” refers to a vast variety of foods, such as cakes, bread, cookies, pastries, and crackers, and a variety of other items, and it might be difficult to find a common thread that connects the members of this a varied group. The strongest common connection is that all of them include wheat flour in their recipes.

Bakery products have a long history of development. The process for the preparation of foods via dry heat treatments in an oven is defined as baking. Baking of foods can also be achieved by using hot ashes or on hot stones. Bakery products include biscuits, bread, cookies, rolls, cakes, pasteries, pies, rolls, doughnuts, etc. These products are mainly composed of raw materials such as wheat flour, water, yeast, salt, and various other ingredients. Bakery foods provide various nutrients that are beneficial for human health. Among bakery products, bread,biscuits and cakes are some of the popularly consumed items.

Fermentation process is known to humans since ancient times. It involves the transformation of raw materials into value added or nutritional products as a result of microbial action or their growth. The fermentation as a science involves aspects of the biological action of microbes, biochemical changes in the substrates and metabolites formed and their effect on food, health and nutritional applications. While fermentation as technology, involves chemical engineering, food engineering and instrumentation aspects and commercialization of the products prepared keeping in view the consumer acceptability. The term fermentation is derived from the Latin word ‘Fervere - to boil’ thus describing the actions of yeasts on extracts of fruits or malted grain. Fermented foods and beverages enhance the pleasure of eating and their nutritional roles include indirect contributions through subjective enhancement of appetite. The instant mixes for fermented or fermentable products such as idli, dosai, dhokla and bhatura mix can reduce the overnight fermenting of the raw materials required for preparation of these products. The instant mixes for idli & dhokla are quite common in the market. However, instant mix for Jalebi and Bhatura are still emerging. Such products add convenience to the consumers and products can be prepared instantly. Certain other fermented foods include dairy products, pickles, sauerkrauts, Kanji, beverages, food supplements and nutraceuticals from fermented biomass.

In 1907, the Russian Nobel laureate, Dr. Elie Metchnikoff, fascinated by the unusual longevity of Bulgarian farmers, consuming beneficial lactic acid bacteria by way of traditional fermented milk products, suggested that regular intake of friendly microbes could benefit human health. Although Dr. Metchnikoff ’s recommended bacteria for the purpose proved largely ineffective, the theory was carried forward with moderate success until the war on bacteria began because of the advent of sulfa drugs and antibiotics (Scott, 2012). However soon after their rampant use and the realization of the rapid spread of antimicrobial resistance, researchers turned yet again to ecological notions and the time was fertile for the advent of probiotics. By the 1980’s the term had stabilized both in medical and veterinary literature. The mid 1990’s witnessed a surge of exponential studies on probiotics, the definition of Probiotics emerged in 2001 and the years thereafter saw tremendous progress in the science of probiotics.

Almost simultaneous was the study on the study of the intestinal microbiota when Alfred Nissile demonstrated that transferring members of the human gut microbiota to healthy typhoid carriers helped in Salmonella being cleansed from their system (Nissle, 1916). It was then, that the importance of the gut microbes in prevention of infection became evident. What followed was the advent of culture independent, modern biotechnological tools for whole genome sequencing and the successful launch of two most ambitious projects - Human Microbiome project (Turnbaugh et al., 2007) and the Met Hit project (Metahit, 2009; Qin et al., 2010). They provided fascinating insights into the highly complex microbial ecosystem harboured by the human body. The term Microbiome (refers to the collective genome of our microbial inhabitants) had entered literature in 2001 and the concept of gut microbiota in maintaining overall health gained wider attention.

Introduction

Since the last century, nutritional science has made a remarkable contribution to the biological sciences through identification of diverse nutrients and their sources, functions, requirement, deficiency symptoms and their remedial measures etc. The advent of high-throughput sequencing technologies together with bioinformatic tools identified the presence of 100 trillion of microorganism belonging to all forms of life in the gastrointestinal tract. In fact, the whole gut microbial consortia are considered as a virtual organ in human and animals and is responsible for the development and functioning of series of essential physiological activities including digestion, absorption, metabolism, immunity, homeostasis, brain and gut development, resistance against disease etc. According to the modern scientific dogma, the human being is in fact a “Superorganism”, carrying consortium of numerous symbiotic Eukarya, Bacteria, Archaea and Viruses. The gut microflora has been co-evolved with human and presumed to maintain an intricate balance among different microbial communities. Upon introspection about the functionality of the gut microflora, it is amply clear that a few of these microorganisms have the ability to make healthy state; while other members are responsible for health-related problems including food poisoning, diarrhoea, abdominal pain, indigestion, inflammatory bowel disease, predisposition to colon cancer, compromising immunity, allergy etc.

Preamble

Historically, food has been an integral part of human civilization and diet with varied food components has sustained human life on this planet over the centuries. Similarly, culturing of food with natural fermentation as means of preserving foods with extended shelf life for future use. In the background of sustaining food security, advances made in biotechnology and molecular biology has provided ample scientific platform to use the advances in increasing and expanding food production on a global magnitude, so as to meet the needs of an ever-growing world population.

The intestinal microbiota is a key component of both the metabolism and immunity of humans and animals. The desirable microbes do have a significant role to play in healthcare through control of digestive disorders and foodborne illnesses. The continued research in this area over the years has led to the identification of important molecules that regulate major functional attributes in the betterment of human health and wellness in the long run. The science and technique of genetic engineering through molecular biology approaches has enabled in enriching the beneficial molecules for the benefit of human life. The accuracy in targeting and designing of molecules will go a long way in developing genetically modified (GM) lactic acid bacteria (LAB) and GM probiotics to significantly rewrite the medical care with food-based approach in the form of targeted specific diets – “Dietomics”.

Introduction

Off late our understanding of the composition and functions of the human gut microbiota has increased exponentially and there is a great interest in producing healthy foods in particular that which have an impact in improving the gastrointestinal health such as probiotics, prebiotics and synbiotics. Many of these functional foods are dairy based and have been accepted greatly worldwide. Nonertheless, there has been a need for the development of nondairy probiotic, prebiotic and synbiotic products (Salmeron 2017). This has prompted food scientists and food industrialists to study the feasibility of applying other fermenting substrates such as cereals for the development of innovative nondairy fermented functional foods. The importance of including nanoscience and nanotechnology techniques for the creation of fermented cereal beverages that contain specific bioactive nanoparticles and their role in food packaging systems will be discussed.

Introduction

The entire living organism from the smaller creatures viruses to the advanced human beings are composed of a set up of biochemical reactions which form the metabolism. These set of metabolic reactions are responsible for the life of organism. The rate of these reactions is a major concern for effective working of organism which is governed by biocatalyst. These biocatalysts are known as enzymes, which accelerates rate of biochemical reaction. These are not utilized in reaction. In 1877, Wilhelm Friedrich Kuhne (Kuhne, 1877) proposed the term enzyme which means ‘in yeast’ and is derived from the Greek word; inzume “leavened” or “in yeast”. At the molecular level of study it is observed that enzymes are proteins which are functional as tertiary and quaratanary structures. Enzymes have active site for the binding to substrate. The active site has two positions; binding and catalytic site (Ogeston, 1948). The former help to bind the substrate with the enzyme followed by the catalysis of reaction by the catalytic site.