eChapters

1.1. General Discussion of Milk

“The cow is the foster mother of the human race. From the days of the ancient Hindoo to this time have the thoughts of men turned to this kindly and beneficent creature as one of the chief sustaining forces of human life”.

William Dempster Hoard (1836-1918)
Former Governor, State of Wisconsin, USA (1889-1891)
Founder of Hoard’s Dairyman (1885)

The oldest written records of the human race are in Sanskrit and are preserved in India. At the time these records began, about 6,000 years ago, milk had already become an important article of food. In fact, so important was the cow to these early people of South and Central Asia that wealth was measured in numbers of cattle, and the cow was in time made a sacred animal and is still so considered in India.

According to the best authorities, the domestication of cattle must have occurred somewhere between 6,000 and 10,000 years ago. The cow was worshipped in Babylonia, and in Egypt about 20,000 B.C. Over fifty references to cows and milk are found in Old Testament and the Promised Land was described as “a land flowing with milk and honey”.

Milk is the only food of the young mammal during the first period of its life. The substances in milk provide more energy and the building materials necessary for growth. Milk also contains antibodies which protect the young mammal against infection. A calf needs about 1000 litres of milk for growth, and that is the quantity which the primitive cow produces for each calf. There has been an enormous changes since man took the cow into his service. Selective breeding has resulted in dairy cows which yield more than 5,000 litres of milk per calf, i.e. five times as much as the primitive cow. Some cows can yield 10,000 litres or more.

INTRODUCTION

Drying or dehydration is defined as the removal of moisture from its initial level to a level which renders food materials safe for subsequent storage. It is a simultaneous heat and mass transfer operation in which heat is supplied externally to evaporate moisture and air is forced through the bed to carry away the moisture. Drying is the oldest technique to preserve food materials. Advantages of drying include reduction in water activity, enhancement of shelf life, maintenance of flavor and nutritive value, and reduction in packaging and transportation costs. When the water activity of the dried product is reduced to below 0.6, most microorganisms do not grow and the rates of other deteriorative reactions are substantially reduced.

Introduction

Flowering plants (Angiosperms) are identified by their morphological characteristics like flower, fruit and seeds that help their taxonomic characterization into different species, genera, families and orders. The floral characters which are used for taxonomic characterization of plants include the type of inflorescences, perianth structure, floral symmetry, arrangement of floral leaves, type of androecium, stamens, gynoecium, carpel, ovule, etc. The type of fruit and seed also play important roles in taxonomic classification. In this chapter we will briefly discuss about various morphological features of flowering plants (in botanical terms) that are useful in taxonomy.

Nomenclature of Plant

Nomenclature of plant is the formal and scientific naming of plants. It is related to but distinct from taxonomy for grouping and classifying plants and provide botanical name.

The scientific/botanical nomenclature started with Species Plantarum by Carolus Linnaeus in 1753. Botanical nomenclature is governed by the International Code of Nomenclature for algae, fungi, and plants (ICN), which replaces the International Code of Botanical Nomenclature (ICBN).

ICBN and ICN

International Code of Botanical Nomenclature, (ICBN) was adopted by the VIIth International Botanical Congress held in Stockholm, July1950. While the International Code of Nomenclature for algae, fungi, and plants (ICN) was adopted by the XVIIIth International Botanical Congress held in Melbourne, Australia in July 2011.

Commercial ice cream represents a highly diversified category influenced by formulation, processing technology, regulatory standards, consumer preferences, cost structures, and market positioning. This chapter explains the meaning and characteristics of commercial ice cream, with particular attention to the Indian regulatory and market context. It examines major commercial product types, their compositions, ingredient functions, and differences from artisanal products. The chapter also discusses contemporary market trends and changing consumer expectations, including premiumization and alternative formulations. Quality challenges such as ice crystal growth, sandiness, shrinkage, weak body, coating defects, and cold-chain failures are considered, providing readers with a practical understanding of commercial ice cream production and positioning.

Abstract

Designer foods are known by various names like medical foods, fortified foods, nutritional foods, nutraceutical foods, pharma foods etc. These foods are nutritious, maintain health and prevent diseases. Such foods must possess characteristics like modified composition; limit the presence of certain potentially harmful components and include certain desirable ingredients either naturally or by intentional addition. The term designer food emerged some years ago to describe foods tailored to specific concentration and proportion of nutrients that are important to health. These are designed and produced by using different approaches. The term ‘designer foods’ is subjected to change based on nutritional labelling regulations, new developments, consumer perceptions and expectations. Grain improvement through biotechnology emphasizes crop upgrading with a specific challenge to manipulate the endosperm composition in order to improve its intrinsic properties for diet and health. Breeding fruits with higher bioactive compounds for disease resistance and improved composition have stimulated interest in the nutraceutical and processing aspects of the fruits Nutritive and genetic interventions to alter milk composition for specific health and processing opportunities are gaining importance in dairy biotechnology. Designer eggs having modified fat provide choices with different nutritional benefits. The options suggested for designer meat and meat products are through production practices, post-harvest procedures and reformulation techniques. All these features of designer foods will be presented with suitable examples.

1 Detection of Starch Introduction

Starch is widely available in several forms such as wheat flour, corn flour and commercially manufactured starch. It is extensively used by adulterators to raise the SNF content in the milk. When high amounts of starch are added to milk, it can cause diarrhea due to the indigestion of starch in colon. Apart from this, accumulation of starch in the body may prove very fatal for diabetic patients. In this method, starch in milk can be detected by using iodine solution. Iodine from the iodine solution gets absorbed on the starch molecule surface and resultant product of adsorption has deep blue colour.

Reagents

 • Potassium iodide

 • Iodine solution - 1% (Add 1 g of iodine and 5 g of potassium iodide in

distilled water and dilute to 100 ml)

Wood apple (Feronialimonia) commonly known as Bael in various Indian sub-continent languages is the most under-utilised fruit despite of its aromatic flavor, high nutritional components and important medicinal values. Reason may be due to challenge in harnessing the pulp from the fruit. It is considered under seasonal fruit but it has long duration of shelf-life as compared to other fruits.The physic-chemical characteristics revealed that it has high shell weight of 55.67% as compared to pulp weight of 43.77% (Devi et al. 2018).

A. Estimation of Calcium

Requirements : Pottasium permanganate solution (0.1N) – Dissolve by heating 33g of potassium permanganate in 1000ml distilled water and allow to stand in coloured bottle for several days. Filter contents through 6mm thick film of asbestos mat on Gooch crucible.

Asbestos mat – Digest asbestos with dilute hydrochloric acid(1:3) for 2-3 days, wash free from acid and digest with 10% sodium hydroxide for few days, wash free from alkali. Digest with dilute Nitric acid(1:3) for several hours and wash. Shake with water into fine pulp and digest with 0.1N potassium permanganate solution that has been acidified with dilute sulphuric acid (1:3), for 1 hour and wash. Use this pulp for layering 6mm film on Gooch crucible.

Dilute hydrochloric acid (1:4), Ammonium hydroxide solution (1:1), Saturated ammonium oxalate solution, Diluted sulphuric acid (1:4)

Developing a nutraceutical or functional food is becoming mandatory as looking at the current nutritional status of the population over the world. Nutraceutical foods are proven to cause several health benefits to people. Hence the basic aim behind developing the nutraceutical chocolate bar was to fulfill the nutritional demands and provide some additional benefits to people. The product mainly contains two key ingredients that are, Drumstick (Morings oleifera) which has the most qualities to call a Superfood” and Quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa) which is referred to as “Mother of all grains”.

Introduction

Meaning of Entrepreneur

The term “entrepreneur” is derived from the French verb entreprendre, which means “to undertake.” Historically, its meaning has evolved. In the early 16th century, it referred to individuals involved in engineering tasks like construction. By the 18th century, the term came to describe those engaged in economic activities. Over time, the concept of an entrepreneur shifted from someone participating in military ventures to someone actively involved in business and economic pursuits. Today, an entrepreneur is defined as an individual who innovates, organizes resources, and takes on risks to create new ventures or products with the goal of generating profits.

Richard Cantillon was the first who proposed the term “entrepreneur is an agent who buys factors of production at certain prices in order to combine them into a product with a view to selling it at uncertain prices in future.”

The proposal presented takes into account the rationale of using natural source of immunity, discarding any preservatives or artificial flavors and additives. Collection of fresh produce followed by processing of fruits and vegetables, in the form of a veggie mix slushy which is ready to eat, ready to cook and easy to digest, through the use of sustainable retorting technology. The proposal takes into account the major problems regarding food for the elder like lack of digestion, in sufficient appetite, lack of value in terms of vitamins and minerals of food, also targeting the notion of feeling sick by taking multi vitamin and immunity tablets on a regular basis.

Introduction

A marketing plan is a strategic document that guides an organization in generating leads and engaging with target customers. It serves as a roadmap for how a company will approach the market, akin to a job description for the business. Every organization needs a well-crafted marketing plan that is tailored to its specific objectives, regularly updated, and aligned with customer demands. Companies with a solid marketing plan tend to be more successful and outperform their competitors compared to those without one.

The marketing plan outlines a strategy for growth by detailing how a company will attract and retain customers. It is an integral part of the overall business plan and lays the foundation for future market opportunities. A strong marketing plan focuses on customer needs and provides a clear roadmap for launching new products, expanding the customer base, and boosting the company’s profile. It includes essential elements such as business goals, mission, budget, and strategies. A well-designed marketing plan ensures effective promotion of products and services, helping businesses reach their target market and track success. Moreover, it should be flexible and adaptable to the evolving market landscape.

Introduction

Oils and fats are utilized both for their food applications as well as for industrial purpose. As a food product, oils and fats are consumed in a variety of forms such as shortening, ghee, butter, margarine, cooking oil, salad oil, etc. Other uses include their usage in the form of lubricants, greases, soaps, cosmetics, paints as well as animal feed and biofuels. Among the Asian countries, Indonesia leads as the prime producer with more than fifty percent of the total palm oil production in the world. As a second-best producer of oils and fats, China was the major manufacturer of rapeseed as well as soybean oil in year of 2018. In general, Asian countries contributed to more than fifty percent of the total fat and oil manufacturing in the world in 2018 (Kushairi et al., 2018). Even though fats and oils are primarily utilized for food applications, there has been an increased interest in their industrial utility for the manufacture of biofuels. Fats manufactured from various animal sources like tallow or lard also contribute to a considerable quantity and compete with vegetable oils for the production of biofuels.

The resources for producing oils and fats are diverse depending on their end use, yet they are obtained from two major sources: animal sources and plant sources. Oils and fats are used as starting materials for the preparation of shortenings, margarines, and other tailored products that further act as functional ingredients in food products prepared by food processors, restaurants, and in home. They have been used for food and other variety of applications since the prehistoric times, due to their easy availability. For example, fatty tissues from animals liberate free-floating fats on being boiled, whereas oil can be pressed out from oil fruits and oilseeds.

The role of dietary oils and fats in human nutrition is also one of the important areas of interest. Over the time, oil and fat industry has provided significant contributions toward nutritional improvement of various products. With the growing concern linked between cardiovascular diseases and consumption of oil and fat products, low-calorie variants of different foods, free or low in cholesterol are also available now. Excessive fat consumption among the populations of developed countries and consequences of obesity has led to the development of reduced-fat and very-low-fat variants of foods.

Abstract

The concept of functional foods has received significant media attention and, as a result, interest has focused on the need for research into the non- nutrient constituents of food plants. This has enabled market penetration of functional foods containing increased amounts of bioactive food compounds or physiologically active nutrients and non-nutrients within food that impart proven health benefits. Functional foods can take many forms. Some may be conventional foods with bioactive components that can now be identified and linked to positive health outcomes. Some may be fortified or enhanced foods, specifically created to reduce disease risk for a certain group of people. Numerous observational studies have shown that omega-3 fatty acids enriched diets are associated with a reduction of cardiovascular mortality, heart attack and sudden death. In several studies, a higher fish intake has been associated with decreased incidence of coronary artery disease (CAD) and cardiovascular mortality. A trial revealed that fish oil supplementation of 130 mg/kg of body weight each day decreased the number of stiff joints, duration of morning stiffness, pain and global arthritis activity. Many supplements contain active ingredients that have strong biological effects in the body. The bioavailability of nutrients within a given food is governed by the composition and microstructure of the food, commonly referred to as the food matrix. More specifically, numerous studies investigating the development of functional foods have shown that the interactions between nutrients and non-nutrients within the food matrix can be synergistic, additive, or neutralizing in nature. The preventive and curative effects of the functional foods on health concludes it to be integral components of established public health programs to reduce the risk of specific diseases.

Food preservation is increasingly influenced by digital technologies associated with Industry 4.0. Ensuring food safety now requires not only microbial control but also authenticity, traceability, continuous quality monitoring and rapid decision-making. Artificial intelligence and machine learning can analyse complex datasets to predict shelf life, recognise spoilage patterns and assess risks arising during processing, storage and distribution. Internet of Things devices connect sensors across the cold chain, while blockchain supports transparent and secure traceability. Smart pH, temperature, humidity, optical and biosensors provide real-time information about product conditions. The chapter examines these technologies alongside automation while considering data quality, model validation, infrastructure, cost and industrial implementation challenges.

Digitalization is transforming ice cream operations by connecting procurement, production, quality, cold chain, sales, distribution, finance, and management through integrated information systems. This chapter examines the transition from traditional manual operations to ERP-, AI-, IoT-, and data-driven management. It explains the costs of limited digitalization and the department-wise benefits of integrated systems, including better traceability, demand forecasting, inventory management, energy monitoring, cold-chain control, predictive maintenance, and profitability analysis. The chapter also explores artificial intelligence, business intelligence, IoT monitoring, and evidence from industry research. It emphasizes that technology alone is insufficient: standardized processes, accurate master data, user training, governance, and management discipline are essential for achieving measurable digital transformation.

4a. Intestinal Disorders
 
History of health claims
 
According to Bottazzi (1983) it was in 76 BC that the Roman historian Plinius recommended the use of fermented milk for treating gastroenteritis. Metchnikoff claimed that the intake of fermented milk containing Lactobacilli reduces the toxin producing bacteria, thereby increasing the longetivity of the host (Metchnikoff, 1908). Tissier (1905) showed that there was an increase in the Bifidobacteria in breast fed-infants, thus claiming that the administration of Bifidobacteria to infants suffering from diarrhea was very beneficial as they supersede the putrefactive bacteria that causes the disease. Intestinal beneficial microfloras are responsible to resist the disease (Bohnhoff et al., 1954).