eChapters

15.1 Introduction
Milk is a multifaceted physiological fluid that aids infants in their transition to life outside the womb by supporting digestion and development, as well as providing essential nutrients and bioactive components. It promotes the development of beneficial microflora and enhances the growth of lymphoid tissue. Recent research indicates that the quantity and importance of bioactive compounds in milk may be greater than previously believed. Through research, the distribution and presence of essential components in various animal milks have been analyzed. The consumption of dairy products has been linked to health benefits that mitigate the adverse effects of obesity and overweight. These benefits include a decreased likelihood of being underweight, reduced blood pressure, and a reduced risk of stroke, colon cancer, and osteoporosis. Dairy products provide a valuable combination of nutrients, such as proteins, fatty acids, vitamins, and minerals, that are essential for the maintenance of blood health, the support of the nervous and immune systems, the improvement of vision, the support of muscle and nerve function, the maintenance of skin health, the maintenance of energy levels, and the overall growth and repair of the body. Furthermore, dairy products can function as carriers for bioactive compounds and may provide a variety of health benefits, such as improved immune function, reduced risk of cardiovascular disease, reduced bone mass loss, and protection against free radical damage, when consumed in an appropriate quantity. Incorporating fruits and vegetables in a variety of forms—including fresh, desiccated, powdered, juiced, pureed, pulped, or extracted—into dairy products such as yogurt, ice cream, and cheese also presents an opportunity to improve their health benefits.

Abstract

Seaweeds are the large marine algae that grow almost exclusively in the shallow waters at the edge of the oceans. Seaweeds are rich sources of many bioactive compounds and nutraceuticals. These factors are considered under two categories: Seaweed phytochemicals and Seaweed polysaccharides. They are rich in soluble dietary fibers, proteins, minerals, vitamins, antioxidants, phytochemicals, and polyunsaturated fatty acids, with low caloric value. The red, brown and green seaweeds have been shown to have therapeutic properties for health and disease management. Usually they are only used as gelling agent and stabilizers in the food and pharmaceutical industries, but current research has revealed their potential medicinal uses against many diseases like cancer, allergy, diabetes, oxidative stress, inflammation, thrombosis, obesity, hypertensive and other degenerative ailments. In line with other natural foods like fruits, vegetables and grains, there has been marked interest within the scientific community to assess which fractions of seaweeds may be linked to the historically observed health benefits. As consumer health and nutrition become more influential in the food industry, the use of seaweed as an ingredient is on the rise in product development. For several centuries there has been a traditional use of seaweeds as food in China, Japan and the Republic of Korea. This review undertakes successful exploration of potential of seaweed gums as an functional ingredient in a number of food applications. This addition has the potential to enhance the nutritional quality of a product and hence human health.

Introduction

One of the main properties of fermented foods whether alkaline or acidic is the presence and activity of beneficial organisms which themselves make these foods functional. These functional micro organisms have varied roles like conversion of the native constituents of raw materials to forms in which they are more bioavailable, formation of taste, colour and flavouring compounds thereby imparting pleasantness to foods, removal of anti-nutritive factors in food by converting them into much less harmful compounds or degrade certain native toxic elements present in food, formation of biopreservatives which will extend the shelf life of foods and provide microbial security, as pathogens and spoilage microorganisms fail to readily grow in such hostile conditions. These functional microorganisms also produce in foods certain health-promoting bioactive compounds like enzymes, vitamins, minerals or increase the digestibility which may not have been in the original food or raw material before fermentation. In other words they improve the nutrition profile of the foods or naturally fortify foods. Some of these beneficial effects may also lead to the formation of certain compounds which show antioxidant properties in foods. These very roles played by these functional micro-organisms form criteria in their selection for use in food fermentations when they are intentionally added to foods both to initiate and accomplish desired fermentations.

We all eat food because it provides the nutrients that are needed for the various functions of the body. Energy is required for growth and repair of tissues, to maintain body temperature and for physical activity. Energy comes from foods which are rich in carbohydrates, proteins and fat. This provides energy to the body from other nutrients and helps to keep the skin and nervous system healthy. They help towards the various biological activity in the human body. These nutrients are grouped into carbohydrates, proteins, lipids (fat), water, vitamins and minerals. These are used for growth, maintenance, repair and other needs of the body. Protective foods are which contain adequate amounts of vitamins, minerals and high-quality proteins which protect against the development of a deficiency disease. There are various chemical reactions taking place within each cell of a living organism. These provide energy for vital processes and for synthesizing new organic materials. This process is known as Metabolism. Living organisms get energy from the environment and use it for movement, growth, development and reproduction.

The term probiotic means “for life” and it is currently used to refer bacteria that are associated with beneficial effects for humans and animals. The credit for first observation made on the positive role of some selected bacteria was attributed to Eli Metchnikoff, the Russian born Nobel Prize recipient, worked at the Pasteur Institute in the beginning of the last century. Metchnikoff suggested that - “the dependence of the intestinal microbes on the food makes it possible to adopt measures to modify the microflora in our bodies and to replace the harmful microbes by useful microbes”. Interim Henry Tissier, a French paediatrician, observed that children with diarrhea in their stools had a low number of bacteria which are characterized by a peculiar Y shaped morphology. On the contrary, these “bifid” bacteria were abundant in healthy children. Based on these observations, Tissier suggested that “bifid” bacteria could be administered to patients with diarrhoea to help restore a healthy gut microflora. These two scientists were the first to give scientific intimation for the use of probiotics when even the term probiotics was not coined. Later in 1965, the term probiotics is coined by Lilly and Stillwell to describe substances produced by one microorganism, that stimulate the growth of another. Subsequently, Parker defined probiotics as organisms and substances that contribute to intestinal balance. Further, Fuller (1989) improved the Parker’s definition of probiotics as “live microbial feed supplements which beneficially affect the host animal by improving its intestinal microbial balance”. Havenaar and Huis in’t Veld (1992) extended the probiotic definition with the description: “A viable mono or mixed culture of microorganisms which, applied to animal or man, beneficially affects the host by improving the properties of the indigenous microflora”. At the end of the millennium, Salminen and his coworkers (1999) proposed the following definition: “probiotics are microbial cell preparations or components of microbial cells that have a beneficial effect on the health & well- being of host”. Whereas FAO/WHO (2001) defined probiotics as “living bacteria that, when administered in adequate amounts, confer a health benefit on the host”. This definition for probiotics is widely accepted.

Introduction

Fermented foods and beverages comprise an indispensable part of the human diet. They can be generally defined as those foods and beverages produced via controlled microbial growth and conversion of various substrates using either enzymes or as whole cell itself, as shown in Figure 1.

Introduction
 
The future of functional foods is bright and there are several reasons for the growing interest in “functional” foods, such as awareness of personal health deterioration, led by busy lifestyles with poor choices of convenience foods and insufficient exercise; increased incidence of self-medication; increased level of information from health authorities and media on nutrition and the link between diet and health; scientific developments in nutrition research; and a crowded and competitive food market, characterized by pressurized margins. Now, the consumer is well aware of the relationship between diet and health. Consumers understand that the risk for chronic diseases such as heart disease, stroke, colon cancer, and type II diabetes is possibly preventable by modification in their diet pattern. This scientific progress in understanding the relationship of diet to disease, along with increasing health care costs and the consumer’s desire to initiate healthy eating and lifestyle habits, makes this a potentially fertile ground for the development of food products that meet these demands.

In spite of the problems with dosage and viability of probiotic strains, a lot more work is required for industry standardization and safety issues. However, it is noted that probiotics have considerable potential against many pathogenic and other diseases. A wide range of clinical trials are still needed to standardize and optimize the conditions. Ongoing basic research will continue to identify and characterize existing strains of probiotics, identifying strain-specific outcomes, determine optimal doses needed for certain results and assess their stability through processing and digestion.

With recent work it has become clear that bacterial societies are very complex. Gene expression in bacterial communities are heterogenous. The heterogeneous gene expression contributes towards the biofilms in fluctuating environments which needs to be understood.Technique like single-cell analysis can help in the investigation of more complex communities. Recently, Jahid and Ha, (2012) have written a review on microbial biofilms of produce and the future challenges to food safety many outbreaks have been observed involving food- borne pathogens. Therefore, there is an urdent need for the safety of foods especially against microbial attacks and biofilm formation as they cause a risk to public health. Medically, the pathogenic microorganisms form biofilm- associated with the epithelial or endothelial lining which are embedded in the lungs, intestinal or vaginal mucus layer, the teeth or other medical implant surfaces or formed intracellularly (Dewasthale et al., 2018). Teichoic acids are characteristic major components of the cell surface in Gram-positive bacteria.

Benjamin et al., (2016) have focused on the small-scale food processing enterprises (SSFPEs) as one of the important measures for national development and addressing food security challenges, particularly in Nigeria. The authors have explained the need for food processing as there has been tremendous food losses and wastages in the country. Enhancing the food processing and productivity for mechanization of food processing unit operations, development of new and existing technologies, design and development of machinery, systems for processing and preservation of different agricultural produce of high target have been undertaken. SSFPEs have played an important role in the economy of a developing country, particularly in terms of employment creation, income generation, post-harvest losses reduction, food preservation, value addition, improvement of food safety, nutritional quality, increase in shelf-life of a product and to act as training grounds for entrepreneurs before they invest in large scale enterprises. SSFPE’s around the world and especially in Nigeria are faced with significant challenges that compromise their ability to function and contribute optimally to the economy. Financial constraints and lack of management skills are the major constraints. It is important that governments and non-governmental organizations must encourage and facilitate the development of SSFPE’s. The mention of specific companies or products of manufacturers, whether or not these have been patented, does not imply that these have been endorsed or recommended by FAO or GAIN in preference to others of a similar nature that are not mentioned. FAO’s Nutrition and Food Systems Division (ESN), in collaboration with the Global Alliance for Improved Nutrition (GAIN) 2018,

Technology transfer (TT) is entering a transformative phase shaped by globalization, digitization, and the growing role of start-ups in the innovation ecosystem. Traditional linear models of TT where inventions flowed from academic laboratories to industry through licensing are being replaced by dynamic, multi-directional, and collaborative frameworks. This chapter explores emerging trends that will define TT in the coming decades, including open innovation platforms, digital TT ecosystems powered by artificial intelligence (AI) and blockchain, the rise of entrepreneurial start-ups and spin-offs, internationalization of TT through cross-border collaborations, and sector-specific shifts driven by 5G, biotechnology, drones, and green energy. Drawing from global and Indian contexts, the chapter highlights how universities, governments, and industries can leverage these trends to build inclusive, resilient, and sustainable innovation ecosystems.
Three global shifts which will redefine TT
1. Digitization of knowledge: With AI, big data, and blockchain, knowledge and IP can be shared, tracked, and commercialized faster and more transparently.
2. Entrepreneurial ecosystems: Start-ups, incubators, and accelerators are replacing traditional firms as vehicles of commercialization, particularly in deep-tech and frontier technologies.
3. Globalization of innovation: Challenges such as pandemics, climate change, and food security require cross-border TT collaborations, making TT an instrument of both economic and geopolitical significance.

Introduction

The world does not function without mathematics. In our day-today life we come across many problems which are solved mathematically. The mathematical logical system follows “Yes” or “No”, “True” or “False”, “1” or “0” which are precise outputs for the precise inputs. There are several ambiguous or vague problems which cannot be given with accurate precise value with the conventional logical operators. Beyond this Boolean logic operator the logical system which mimics the human brain and gives precise solutions for the imprecise linguistic variables is the Fuzzy logic system. Fuzzy logic is a novel approach that intends to imitate human reasoning using calculations and operations with fuzzy systems and linguistic variables. The problems with vague imprecise data which we come across in our day today life cannot be solved by conventional binary logical method. The fuzzy logic solution spontaneously splits a complex problem into its component parts. This reduces the solution to its component parts. Compilers may re-assemble the code for effective execution on some target, but at the programmer level the problem is a number of simple tasks.

Fuzzy sets theory was introduced by Zadehin the year 1965, and it allows uncertain phenomena to be treated mathematically.

1. Proteins in solution absorb ultraviolet light with absorbance maxima at 280 and 200 nm. Amino acids with aromatic rings are the primary reason for the absorbance peak at 280 nm. Peptide bonds are primarily responsible for the peak at 200 nm.
2. Aromatic amino acids tyrosine and tryptophan give proteins their characteristic ultraviolet (UV) absorption at 280 nm, which is routinely used to estimate protein concentration. Phenylalanine and disulfide bonds also contribute to absorption at 280 nm, albeit slightly.

1.1. Introduction

The significance of milk as the most wholesome single food available in nature has never been debated. It is as ancient as mankind itself, as it is the substance created to feed the mammalian infant. All species of mammals, from the lowly rat to the mighty whale, produce milk for this purpose. Several centuries ago, perhaps as early as 6000-8000 BC, ancient man learned to domesticate species of animals for obtaining their milk for consumption. These included cows, buffalos, sheep, goats and camels, all of which are still used in various parts of the world for the production of milk for human use (Fig. 1.1 & 1.2).

Even after public concern the scientists feel that the GMO foods are quite safe. According to them the genetically-engineered crops are very safe to eat as much as the non-GE of the same crop. According to them the environment has improved by reducing the use of pesticides. GMO stands for genetically modified organism. Soy, corn, or other crops are very common as GM crops which are made by genetically engineered DNA. Many have come to the conclusion that GM foods are safe, healthy and sustainable. However, some people are against them. There are many benefits of GM crops like less water or pesticides to be used. Genetically engineered crops fight diseases to save the foods. At the same time the industries/ farmers that grow them are also benefitted. These foods have higher nutritional profiles, both in the US and abroad like corn which is one of the most prominent GMO foods. Soy is found in tofu, vegetarian products, soybean oil, soy flour and many other products. The other major crops taken for genetic modification are Papayas, Canola and Cotton. For dairy products a lot of work is being done on the genetic engineering of animals in a big way. This is going to be the most intractable environmental challenge of the 21^st Century. Presently, around 92% of the U. S. corn (GE), 94% of soybeans and 94% of cotton are genetically engineered.

GENETIC ENGINEERING

Genetic engineering is a means of improving the food supply even before harvest or slaughter by improving yields, increasing disease resistance, and enhancing the nutritional qualities of various foods. Broadly speaking, genetic engineering refers to any deliberate alteration of an organism’s DNA. Genetic engineering has been practiced for thousands of years, ever since humans began selectively breeding plants and animals to create more nutritious, better tasting foods. In the past two decades, genetic engineering has become increasingly powerful as scientific advances have enabled the direct alteration of genetic material. Genetic engineering is alternately called as ‘ recombinant DNA technology’ or ‘gene cloning’. Genes have been cut and pasted from one species to another, yielding, for example, disease- resistant squash and rice, frost-resistant potatoes and strawberries, and tomatoes that ripen-and therefore spoil-more slowly.

Genetically modified organism (GMO) is a microbe or more complex plant or animal in which DNA has been altered for a particular purpose such as manufacturing proteins, making improvement to the organism, research into the nature of genes and biological process, correcting genetic defects.

Diversity of gut microbial community

The human microbiota (the collection of microbes that live on and inside us) consists of about 100 trillion microbial cells that outnumber our ‘‘human’’ cells 10 to 1, and that provide a wide range of metabolic functions that we lack. It has been estimated that they encode 100-fold more unique genes than our own genome. Furthermore, the gut microbes contribute to energy harvest from food, and changes of gut microbiome may be associated with bowel diseases or obesity. To understand and exploit the impact of the gut microbes on human health and well-being it is necessary to decipher the content, diversity and functioning of the microbial gut community. If we consider ourselves as superior organisms encompassing these microbial symbionts, by far the majority of genes in the system are microbial. In this sense, completing the human genome also requires the characterization of the microbiome (the collection of genes in the microbiota).

Methods of counting viable and non-viable bacteria in gut

Before the advent of genome sequencing and genome-wide analysis method, our knowledge of molecular characteristics of diverse gut microbial population was extremely limited. To obtain an estimate of cultivability, microbial ecologists generally compare microscopic counts with total viable counts. The total viable count made on a nonselective agar based medium estimates the number of colony forming units (cfu) per gram of sample. The finding that total viable counts are typically lower than total microscopic counts was thought to be due to the number of dead cells. Indeed, dead bacteria in feces may constitute up to one third of the total bacterial community. However, recent nucleic acid based studies indicated that a majority of bacteria in a variety of ecosystems are different from those described in culture.

Introduction
Ghee is the pure clarified butter fat prepared chiefly from cream and/or desi butter (Makhan) to which no colouring matter is added.  Ghee manufacture has great significance and relevance to Indian masses and the dairy industry. Ghee is a very popular product since ancient time and has greater demand during festival and other ceremonial functions where use of ghee in food has been considered to delicacy due to its pleasing flavour and aroma. There are sufficient recorded evidence to prove that the manufacture of ghee originated from India and has been used extensively for religious and dietary purposes since Vedic times. Presently about 28% of total milk production is utilized for manufacture of about 1 million tones of ghee per annum. It is the traditional product with an established market. Cow ghee is golden yellow in colour, and is attributed unique therapeutic value.  The colour of buffalo ghee is greenish yellow due to presence of pigments called billirubin and billiverdin. Ghee is characterized by its pleasant, cooked and rich flavour. The preferred texture is of larger uniform size from grains having non-greasy consistency.

1. Key Forces Shaping Food Packaging • Changing Consumer Priorities • Modern consumers are increasingly choosing food packaging that aligns with values of health, convenience, and sustainability. The demand is growing for packaging options that are recyclable, biodegradable, or reusable. Consumers also expect transparency, with clean labels and QR codes providing details on ingredients and sourcing, which has become essential for building trust (Santeramo et al.,2022) • Environmental Sustainability • Sustainability remains a powerful influence on packaging innovation. Reducing single-use plastics, increasing recyclable options, and adopting circular economy principles are all priorities. Both consumers and businesses are actively seeking solutions that reduce environmental impact, such as renewable, compostable materials and designs that minimize waste ( Fao et al ., 2022)

Introduction

It is an eminent actuality that the diets of end users are being advanced globally; however, the patterns of food procurement and food safety protocols diverge across countries. The fundamental rationale of the trend is that the consumer awareness with regard to food safety, quality and variety has been proliferated greatly. Looking back to the history of food industry, it is unquestionable that the past has a full frame of misfortune, indignity and many disastrous incidents. Moreover, the entire muddle was not always related with microorganisms; numerous of them were associated with environmental problems, technological advancements or certain alterations in production protocols and management.