eChapters

Introduction

Hippocrate, an ancient physician, a great thinker and also often referred as father of medicine, for the first time conceive the idea nearly 2,500 years ago that a disease is caused due to natural factors such as environmental factors, diet, and living habits. He advocated the secret of healthy living in healthy food in his famous quote “Let food be thy medicine and medicine be thy food”. But unfortunately, this wisdom about food has faded with the time and we became dependent on synthetic medicines and drugs for even life style disorders. In the last century, research advancement in the field of food science and nutrition established food not only as a source of nutrition but also a source of active food components that aid specific functions and rejuvenated the Hippocrates concept. According to the Department of Health and Human Services, USA, daily diet of a person, plays a crucial role in 5 of 10 diseases which are the leading causes of death, such as diabetes (noninsulin dependent or type 2), stroke, coronary heart disease (CHD), specific type of cancer, and atherosclerosis. In the mid-1980s, term “functional food” was introduce in Japan and defined as food that contain active components either from plant or animal origin and provide physiological benefits in addition to the basic nutritional needs.

4.1 Introduction
At the moment of secretion in the udder, milk is sterile; however, it is contaminated by bacteria before it is extracted from the udder. With the exception of mastitis, the bacteria are generally innocuous and restricted at this juncture. Microorganisms may contaminate the milk further during milking, handling, storage, and other pre-processing activities. The bacteria have the potential to either enhance the quality of milk or cause it to deteriorate. Some of the beneficial bacteria, particularly the lactic acid bacteria, are referred to as probiotics. These probiotics are gaining a more prominent position in nutraceutical dairy and other food products, which provide consumers with health benefits such as the control of diarrhoea, antihypertensive, hypocholesterolemia, immunostimulatory, and anticarcinogenic properties.

4.2 Lactic acid bacteria
This particular group of bacteria is capable of homofermentation, which is the process of fermenting lactose to lactic acid, and heterofermentation, which is the process of generating a high number of end products. They are commonly present in milk and are also used as starter cultures in the production of cultured dairy products, such as yoghurt.

Introduction

Numerous characteristics of food determine its acceptability to consumers and to regulatory officials. Before accepting a food for consumption, it must be attractively presented, must have desirable odour and flavour characteristics and other qualities and must be free from potential pathogens or their toxic products. The ultimate nutritive qualities, flavour and appearance have been preserved and no harmful organisms or substances are present to affect the consumer adversely. If the quality of the product is good, its keeping quality is also likely to be substantial. Conversely, there are more chances of spoilage of an inferior quality food product during storage.

In the last decade or so, the problem of determining the microbial content and their activities in dairy products has been under close scrutiny. The dairy industries still adopt the dye reduction test because it is cheap, simple and satisfactory. However, other new techniques have been introduced along with some modifications in traditional tests. The microbiological quality must be maintained. To assess the bacterial content and their activities in dairy products, various methods are available for the microbiological testing of milk. The specific tests should be chosen as per the application and other factors like cost etc. On the basis of public health and economic consideration it is necessary to test microbiological quality of milk at a number of points along the chain from producer to consumer which includes - raw milk supply, bulk milk arriving at processors premises, monitoring bulk milk during storage prior to processing and monitoring the procession & the quality control of finished products. The techniques for estimating bacterial numbers in raw material are divided into two categories.

Microorganism is a collective term for all living organisms, which are not visible to the eye, and occupy an intermediate position between the vegetable and animal kingdoms. They are found every where in the atmosphere, in water and in the soil and, as they break down organic materials, they play a very important role in the cycle of the nature.

There are thousands of species which are important to the life and economic structure of the human race. For example, certain species form simple chemical elements during the break down of dead organic material which plants can use again. They increase soil fertility and crop production which results in more food.

Other species are present, and essential, in animal intestines, helping in the digestion of food.

Some microorganisms are used in many food processes, e.g. dahi, yoghurt, cheese, pickles, beer and wine as well as in the acid production to preserve foods. There are microorganisms that produce toxic substances which kill other organisms, e.g. the mould penicillium which produces the substance penicillin.

Many microorganisms cause diseases in animals and plants with a subsequent reduction in the nation’s food supply, whereas others cause food deterioration such as mouldy foods, tainted foods, etc.

A. Enumeration of Different Microflora of Soil
Introduction
Agriculturally, soil is the region which supports the plant life by providing mechanical support and nutrients required for growth. From the microbiologist view point, soil is one of the most dynamic sites of biological interactions in the nature. Soil is an admixture of five major components viz. organic matter, mineral matter, soil-air, soil water and soil microorganisms/living organisms. The amount/ proposition of these components varies with locality and climate.

The soil organisms are broadly classified in two group’s viz. soil flora and soil fauna, the detailed classification of which is as follows.
1) Soil flora
a) Microflora Bacteria, Fungi, Molds, Yeast, Mushroom, Actinomycetes, Streptomyces, Algae e.g. BGA, Yellow Green algae, Golden brown algae.
b) Macroflora

Introduction

Encapsulation may be defined as a process to entrap one substance (active agent) within another substance (wall material). The encapsulated substance, except active agent, can be called the core, fill, active, internal or payload phase. The substance that is encapsulating is often called the coating, membrane, shell, capsule, carrier material, external phase, or matrix. In the food industry, encapsulation process can be applied for a variety of reasons. Encapsulation is a useful tool to improve delivery of bioactive molecules (e.g. antioxidants, minerals, vitamins, phytosterols, lutein, fatty acids, lycopene) and living cells  (e.g. probiotics) into foods [1]. In most cases, encapsulation refers to a technology in which the bioactive components are completely enveloped, covered and protected by a physical barrier, without any protrusion of the bioactive components. Also, encapsulation has been defined as a technology of packaging solids, liquids, or gaseous materials in small capsules that release their contents at controlled rates over prolonged periods and under specific conditions. Produced particles usually have diameters of a few nm to a few mm.

Abstract

Micronutrient (vitamin and mineral) deficiencies affect more than 2 billion people worldwide and are especially prevalent in developing countries including India. Conditions due to vitamin mineral deficiencies account for 7.3 percent of the global disease burden.Iron deficiency (anemia), vitamin A and iodine deficiency disorders continue to be a grim public health problem. Thus, elimination of vitamin and mineral deficiencies is essential to improve the overall health of the masses as well as to sustain economic growth and national development. Food fortification is an effective intervention to deliver vitamin and mineral rich foods to large populations. In addition to the prevention of vitamin and mineral deficiencies, food fortification is an effective measure to raise vitamin and mineral levels by moving the population towards consuming recommended dietary allowances for most micronutrients-making it a long–term and a sustainable strategy. India is the largest producer of milk in the world with 146.3 million tonnes and the consumption rate of milk and milk products by all age groups of people are high.Therefore, fortification of milk with mineral and vitamins could be a safe and effective strategy to fight these micronutrient deficiencies.

One of the major discoveries that gave birth to the field of microbiology was the development of instruments that could magnify, so that objects too small to be seen with the naked eye could be visualized. Robert Hooke in 1665, using an instrument with two sets of lenses (a crude compound microscope), was the first person to describe cells as life’s smallest structural units. In the early 1670s Anton van Leeuwenhoek used a simple magnifying lens to observe microbes he called ‘animalcules’ in rainwater, and was possibly the first person to observe microorganisms. The development of electron microscopes in the 1930s enabled magnifications of a further hundred times greater to be achieved.

A microscope can be defined as an optical instrument consisting of a lens or a combination of lenses for getting magnified images of minute objects. A simple microscope is essentially an ordinary magnifying lens held on an adjustable stand. It can give magnification up to 20 times the size of the object.

1. Introduction

Thermal processing used extensively in the food industry for preservation and shelf life extension of the products (Arnoldi 2001). Heat treatments remain most important in food processing unit operations, not only to achieve desirable changes in eating quality but also for preservative effect by inactivation of microorganisms, destruction of enzymes and insects.Heat is applied in various unit operations through adifferent mode of heat transfer such as conduction, convection, and radiations. 

Food adulteration is a global issue, and because there are insufficient regulations and oversight, developing nations are more vulnerable to it. But in many nations, food adulteration has gone unnoticed. Contrary to popular assumption, milk adulterants can, regrettably, present major health risks that result in fatal diseases. Modern milk adulteration involves increasingly complex techniques, necessitating state- of- the- art research to identify the adulterants. Because milk contains so many nutrients that are needed by both adults and infants, it is referred to as the ideal food. In terms of protein, fat, carbohydrates, vitamins, and minerals, it is among the best sources. Regretfully, milk adulteration is a very common problem worldwide. Potential causes could be the gap between supply and demand, the perishable nature of milk, the low purchasing power of the consumer, and the absence of appropriate detection tests. Because there is insufficient oversight and inadequate law enforcement, the situation is substantially worse in developing and underdeveloped nations. While quantitative detections of adulterants in milk are varied and complex, qualitative detections can be carried out simply using chemical reactions. The type of quantitative detection methods used depends on the milk’s adulterants.

Typical Adulterants in Milk

The addition of vegetable protein, milk from different species, whey addition, and watering are the main adulterants in milk that are known to be economically motivated. There is no serious health risk associated with these adulterations. Some adulterants, though, are too dangerous to ignore. Urea, formalin, detergents, ammonium sulfate, boric acid, caustic soda, benzoic acid, salicylic acid, hydrogen peroxide, sugars, and melamine are a few of the main adulterants in milk that have been shown to have serious negative health effects.

5.1 Introduction

Waste from the dairy processing industry is generated through production of milk products at different stages. With diversification of dairy products, by-products have also gained some importance. Utilization of dairy by- products improves economical and nutritional aspects of milk production and reduces environmental pollution originating from dairy waste. Important dairy by-products include butter milk, ghee residues and whey, the major waste arising from production of cheese, casein, paneer and chhana. Whey arises as a result of protein coagulation/precipitation in the preparation of these products. It is used for manufacture of whey powder, whey drinks and lactose (milk sugar). Whey protein concentrates can be prepared by modern technological methods like ultra-filtration and reverse osmosis. Desi buttermilk is an important domestic beverage since olden days. Ghee residue can be utilized for manufacture of chocolate burfi, samosa filling etc. Hence, utilization of dairy waste particularly whey, butter milk and ghee residues obtained during manufacturing of various main products, has not only increased the availability of nutritional milk foods but has also indicated the profitable method of by products utilization and helped in minimizing the problems of pollution. This chapter focuses on utilization of these dairy industry wastes.

Importance

The dairy products, which have originated in India, are called indigenous dairy products. The products can be broadly classified in to khoa based and channa based. The importance of the dairy products were known to Indians since time immemorial or it could be roughly estimated to be around five thousand years ago and the development could be considered as an art.

Introduction

There has been a considerable progress in the overall production in the dairy sector. Without a proper marketing, the country would not attain the expected rate of growth in dairy farming. Marketing is a flow of goods and services from producer to consumer and users. In this process the activities include moving the goods from the point of production to the point of consumption. The activities like creation of time, place, form and utility are involved. According to Philip Kotler, marketing as a human activity directed at satisfying the needs and wants through exchange process. The performance of the trade activities involved in the f low of goods and services affect the marketing efficiency and producers share in the consumer rupee. A marketing system consists of different milk marketing channels. That marketing channel is considered good in which producer get the highest share in consumer rupee and consumer share is highest in producers rupee. The interest of the Producer is to get the highest possible returns from their milk. Between them, there are marketing intermediaries or middlemen who perform various marketing functions like transporting and retailing. All the intermediaries/ middlemen are also interested to make highest profit from the milk business. The present lesson provides information on the economic aspect of marketing of milk and milk products through a empirical study conducted in Rajasthan state.

1. Ethyl alcohol content in alcoholic beverages is determined by Pyknometer Method or SG (Hydrometer) Method (after distillation). %Alcohol (v/v) = 8610.6 – (16584 x SG) + (7973.3 x SG 2)
2. 1 ml of 0.05N NaOH is equivalent to 0.00375 g of tartaric acid.
3. Volatile acidity of alcohol drinks is measured in terms of as acetic acid. 1 ml. of 0.05N NaOH is equivalent to 0.003g of acetic acid.
4. Esters in alcohol drinks is expressed as ethyl acetate gms. per 100 liters of abs. alcohol. 1 ml. of 0.1N NaOH is equivalent to 0.0088g of Ethyl acetate.
5. Esters in Higher alcohol drinks is expressed as Amyl alcohol gms. per 100 liters of abs. alcohol.1 ml of 0.1N NaOH is equivalent to 0.0088g of Amyl alcohol.
6. The concentration of Higher alcohol g/100L is determined by spectrophotometer method using p-dimethylaminobenzaldehyde solution by reading the % T or Absorbance (OD) of developed colour of samples and series of standards in spectrophotometer at 530/535 nm against reagent blank as reference.

The significance of milk in human nutrition is now well established as it is considered as the best, ideal and complete food for all age groups. However, in spite of being so, milk can also serve as a potential vehicle for transmission of some diseases under certain circumstances. Moreover, by virtue of possessing almost all the essential nutritional factors, milk can also serve as an excellent culture and protective medium for certain microorganisms, which may include potential pathogens capable of causing serious health problems to the consumers. In this way, milk may serve not only as a vehicle of transmission of disease causing organisms, but it can also allow these pathogens to grow, multiply and produce certain toxic metabolites, thereby making itself an extremely vulnerable commodity from public health point of view.

24.1 Introduction
A dairy by-product can be described as a valuable commercial product generated during the production of a primary dairy item. Examples include skim milk, buttermilk, residual ghee, and whey, as depicted in the diagram below. Utilizing these by-products not only enhances plant profitability but also makes essential nutrients accessible to humans while reducing environmental pollution from dairy waste. However, converting these edible substances into non-food items is often unjustifiable, particularly in regions facing milk shortages. Effective management of by-products is crucial for ensuring profitable dairy operations, as every component of milk offers significant nutritional value that should be preserved. Consequently, there is growing global interest among researchers in maximizing the utilization of these by-products. Nonetheless, it’s important to note that while many dairy by-products can technically be processed into useful commodities, feasibility alone does not justify their widespread utilization. If capital and resources are to be assigned to a plan to utilise by-products, their processing must be economically viable. Therefore, it is essential to prioritise the research and development of cost-effective technologies for the improving and utilisation of dairy by-products. A dairy by-product can be described as a commercially valuable product generated during the production of a primary dairy product. Examples include skim milk, buttermilk, ghee residue, and whey, as illustrated in the diagram below. Utilizing these by-products enhances operational efficiency, provides essential nutrients for human consumption, and mitigates environmental pollution from dairy waste. However, converting edible materials into nonfood items may not be justifiable, particularly in regions facing milk shortages. Profitable dairy operations depend significantly on effectively managing by-product disposal. Every component of milk should be processed wisely to preserve its nutritional value. Consequently, there is growing global interest among researchers in optimizing the utilization of these by-products. Nonetheless, while it may be technically feasible to process any dairy byproduct into useful goods, it doesn’t necessarily mean it should be done.

Carbohydrates are polyhydroxy derivatives of aldehydes or ketones and undergo all the organic reactions common to the carbonyl groups and hydroxyl groups. The principal milk carbohydrate is lactose. It is a disaccharide. Hydrolysis of lactose with enzyme β-galactosidase yields glucose and galactose.

Lactose is the major carbohydrate present in all types of milk. The first record of isolation of lactose was in 1663, by Bartolettus by evaporation of whey. Milk contains only trace amounts of other sugars, including glucose, fructose, glucosamine, galactosamine, neuraminic acid, and neutral and acidic oligosaccharides.

Lactose plays a significant role in milk and milk products that are

• It plays a major role in the production of fermented dairy products.

• It contributes to the nutritive value of milk and milk products

• It affects the texture of certain concentrated and frozen products;

• It is involved in heat-induced changes in the color and flavor of highly heated milk products.

Status of Lactose

Lactose content varies extensively in the milk of different species. Breed of animal, individuality factors, udder infection, and especially the stage of lactation regulates the lactose content in milk. The lactose concentration in milk decreases gradually and significantly during lactation; this behavior contrasts with the lactational trends for lipids and proteins, which, after a decrease during early lactation, increase significantly during the second half of lactation. Lactose synthesis is hampered during mastitis. Lactose, along with sodium, potassium, and chloride ions, plays the principal role in controlling the osmotic pressure of the mammary system. Thus, any change in lactose content is compensated by a change in the soluble salt constituents. The osmotic relationship between lactose and soluble salts during the secretion of milk partly explains the presence of high lactose in milk with a reduced ash content and vice versa (Table 1).

Physical Properties of milk
Procedure: Collect different types of market milk samples and study the  properties of milk. Boil the milk and note down the properties given in table 1 and record the observations

Types of Enazymes in milk

1. Endogenous and 2. Exogenous.

Three sources of enzyme in milk:

1. The blood via defective mammary cells.

2. Secretory cell cytoplasm. Some of which are occasionally entrapped with fat globules by the encircling MFGM.

3. The outer layer of MFGM is probably the principal source of endogenous enzymes in milk. The outer layer of MFGM is derived from the apical membrane of the secretory cell which in turn originates from the Golgi membrane and acts as the principal source of enzyme in milk.

General Characteristics of Milk Enzymes

1. Deteriorative character e.g. lipase (commercially most important enzyme in milk), proteinase, acid phosphatase, xanthine oxidase.

2. Preservative enzymes. e.g. superoxide dismutase, sulfhydryl oxidase.

3. As an indicator of the thermal treatment history of milk. Related enzymes are alkaline phosphatase, ϒ glutamyl transpeptidase, and lactoperoxidase.

4. Mastitis infection indicator. Related enzymes are catalase, n-Acetyl-β D-glucosaminidase, and acid phosphatase.

5. Antimicrobial activity.

6. Commercial source of ribonuclease and lactoperoxidase

Common Milk Enzymes and their Role in Dairy Industry