eChapters

Life forms are composed of one of two basic cell types : Eukaryotic or Prokaryotic. Generally, eukaryotic cells are larger and more complex than the prokaryotic cells and possess a membrane-enclosed nucleus; eukaryotic means ‘true nucleus’ (eu=true; karyon = nucleus). All plants, animals, fungi, protozoa and algae are composed of eukaryotic cells. Only the microorganisms classes as bacteria and the archaea are prokaryotic cells. Prokaryotic cells have no nuclear membrane and therefore lack a true nucleus. The latin prefix pro means ‘early’ and in this instance suggests the somewhat primitive nuclear structure found in bacterial cells. Eukaryotic microorganism are sometimes simply referred to as eukaryotes, and the prokaryotic microbes as prokaryotes.

Mushrooms are most ancient, best known and greatly admired fleshy macrofungi. Mushrooms are delicacies, much sought after and greatly valued foods. Wild mushrooms are mostly found in forests, tree trunks, pastures, lawns and road side during winter season and appear at surprising speed. Mushroom hunting or gathering is a popular hobby in Western countries. The wild mushrooms may be edible or unpalatable or poisonous. Poisoning by wild mushrooms is common and may be fatal or produce merely mild gastrointestinal disturbance or slight allergic reaction. The term toad stool is popularly reserved for inedible or poisonous mushrooms, but this classification has no scientific basis. This alarming term keeps many people away from these foods. It is important that every mushroom intended for eating be accurately identified. Mushrooms vary in colour, size, shape, growth habit, yielding ability and other characteristics.

STRUCTURE: Mushrooms are the fleshy fungi which constitute a major group of lower plant kingdom. Mushroom is the conspicuous umbrella-shaped fruiting body (sporophore) of certain fungi of the order Agaricales in the class Basidiomycetes but also of some other groups. Popularly, the term mushroom is used to identify the edible sporophores. The edible reproductive part consists of a stem and a cap. Gills found on the underside of the cap, are arranged like spokes in a wheel. The gills bear multiple spores which start new fungi. The sporophore emerges from an extensive underground network of fine thread like white growth known as mycelium. The mushroom, fruit body produced basidiospores at the tip of club like structures, called basidia, which are arranged along the gills of the mushroom. Beneath the mushroom, in the soil, is the mold colony itself, consisting of a mat of intercoiled hyphae, sometimes several feet in diameter. The mushrooms first appear as white tiny ball consisting of short stem (stipe) and a cap (pileus) which begins to open up like an umbrella. The delicate membrane or Veil (velum) enveloping the cap tears off, if allowed to develop fully, and lamellae (gills) radiating from the stalk into the cap become visible. These gills become darkened as the basidiospores (seeds) develop into millions and fall in the ground for starting their life cycle once again for second generation of mushrooms.

Fungi cause diseases in plants and animals and in such diseases, the fungi actively grow and invade the body of their hosts. There is another means by which fungi can cause harm is growing on stored food material that we consume and produce toxic metabolites referred to as mycotoxins (means fungus poisons). Food is particularly susceptible to fungal infections at almost every stage of storage or production. Mycotoxin is toxic substance produced by a fungus. The term is restricted to toxins produced by fungi growing in human foods or animal feeds. The growth of the fungi in food grains leading to physical spoilage of grains and toxin production is a serious problem in developing countries. Their occurrence in food and feed has both economic and health implications, as the toxic effects in human beings, animals and other living systems were well established. The effects of poisoning by mycotoxin are referred to as mycotoxicoses.

Fundamentals of Nanotechnology in Packaging • Overview of Nanotechnology in Packaging: Nanotechnology in packaging refers to using materials manipulated at an extremely small scale (1-100 nanometers) to boost the performance and capabilities of packaging. Techniques like nanoparticles, nanofibers, and nanocomposites are integrated into packaging materials to improve their physical properties, prolong shelf life, and introduce new functions like antimicrobial features. Mechanisms and Key Materials • Nanoparticles: Small particles added to packaging to enhance strength, f lexibility, and barrier properties. Common types include silver, titanium dioxide, and zinc oxide nanoparticles. • Nanofibers: Made from substances such as chitosan, cellulose, or polymers, these fibers increase strength and are useful in active packaging coatings. • Nanoclays: Dispersed in polymers, these increase resistance to gases and moisture, enhancing barrier performance

Introduction

Off late our understanding of the composition and functions of the human gut microbiota has increased exponentially and there is a great interest in producing healthy foods in particular that which have an impact in improving the gastrointestinal health such as probiotics, prebiotics and synbiotics. Many of these functional foods are dairy based and have been accepted greatly worldwide. Nonertheless, there has been a need for the development of nondairy probiotic, prebiotic and synbiotic products (Salmeron 2017). This has prompted food scientists and food industrialists to study the feasibility of applying other fermenting substrates such as cereals for the development of innovative nondairy fermented functional foods. The importance of including nanoscience and nanotechnology techniques for the creation of fermented cereal beverages that contain specific bioactive nanoparticles and their role in food packaging systems will be discussed.

Nanotechnology-based preservation employs materials generally measuring between 1 and 100 nanometres. Their high surface-area-to-volume ratio, adjustable surface chemistry and responsiveness to external stimuli enable highly controlled interactions with foods and microorganisms. Nanomaterials may deliver antimicrobial compounds, antioxidants and other active substances in a controlled or targeted manner. Silver, zinc oxide and chitosan nanoparticles can be incorporated into coatings and films to reduce microbial contamination while maintaining sensory and nutritional quality. The chapter discusses nanoencapsulation, nanoemulsions, antimicrobial nanoparticles and nanosensors for detecting spoilage and monitoring shelf life. It also considers effectiveness, controlled release, food applications, safety assessment and potential regulatory concerns associated with nanotechnology.

Introduction

The act of substituting food or drink with low grade quality ingredients thereby the f inal product will fail to the meet the regulation or standards and in most cases even unfit for human consumption (Augustin et al., 2009). With demand for profit based manufacturing market, there will be increase in points of adulteration with cheaper alternatives or inferior grade ingredients in the production of food or drink (Banti, 2020)]. Adulteration is highly prevails in developing countries such as India, where about 70% of milk supply is adulterated on day to day basis (Bittar et al., 2017). It is every nation and each individual’s responsibility to provide safe and nutritious food to the consumers.

Previous Year Questions

1. Write down the various programmes run by state & central govts for ensuring food security in our country. Briefly discuss the strategies for sustainable agricultural production (20M, CSE 2023)

2. How will national food policy help in sustainable food security? (CSE 2020, 10 marks)

3. Discuss the national initiatives for food and nutrition security. (8M, IFoS-2019)

4. What are the special schemes for providing food grains to underprivileged, destitutes and malnourished populations (CSE 2016, 12.5 marks)

5. National and international food policies. (10M, IFoS-2016)

1. Introduction

Antioxidants are considered an important class of nutraceuticals which are associated with health improving properties. Antioxidants are compounds which when present in foods at concentrations lower than an oxidizable substrate, markedly delay or prevent the oxidation of substrate (Halliwell, 1999). They are increasingly applied in food systems to retard the oxidation process, particularly in lipid containing foods (Droge, 2002; Lee et al., 2004). The commercially available solutions to counter food oxidation are predominated by synthetic antioxidants such as butylated hydroxyanisole (BHA), butylated hydroxytoluene (BHT) and tertiary butyl hydroquinone (TBHQ), among others, which are increasingly rejected by consumers and legitimized by regulators due to long term health implications (Park et al., 2001). As a consequence, the development and utilization of natural antioxidants as alternatives to synthetic ones have attracted global interest among researchers.

The use of spices and herbs in foods was known since ancient times to modify or to improve the flavor. However, the antioxidant properties of only some of the spices have been recognized. Different spices and their extracts such as turmeric, ginger, fennel, rosemary, and sage, among others, are reported to possess very high antioxidant properties, owing to the content of biologically active compounds, which enables their food application (Madhavi et al., 1996). Exploitation of natural antioxidants in consumer goods is increasingly accepted and will gain momentum due to the rise of green consumerism. In this chapter, an attempt has been made to provide an insight into natural antioxidants and colors. Beginning with the source distribution of natural antioxidants, followed by review of extraction methods for their isolation from plant based matrices and bio-preservative properties in vegetable oils to delay rancidity. Lastly, a thorough collection of literature pertaining natural colors has been presented to potentiate the application of clean label ingredients in food systems. The application of natural antioxidants and colors in food products can vouch the food safety with value addition in terms of their nutraceutical properties.

Introduction

Fruits contain various beneficial compounds that possess biological activities and can be used as pharmaceutical nutraceutical products. Most of the fruits contain polyphenolic components that can promote antioxidant potential on human health. Wild Blueberries, strawberries, plums, oranges, grapes, cherries and mangoes are rich in antioxidant. Additionally, anti-inflammatory, antibacterial, antifungal and chemopreventive effects are associated with the various fruits. Besides polyphenols, other compounds such as xanthones, carotenoids, saponins also exhibit health effects. Fruit consumption is considerably increasing in the daily diet because they supply high levels of biologically active compounds that impart health benefits beyond basic nutrition. Fruits provide an optimal mixture of antioxidants such as vitamins C and E, polyphenols and carotenoids, vitamins, phytoestrogens, glucosinolates and anthocyanins. Diets rich in fruits may help to delay the ageing processes and reduce the risk of certain types of cancer, cardiovascular diseases and other chronic diseases. The combination of vitamins, minerals, phenolic, antioxidants and fibre seems to be responsible for these effects. The most dietary components in fruits acting as antioxidants are fibre, polyphenols, conjugated isomers of linoleic acid, D-limolene, epigallocatechin, gallate, soy protein, isoflavones, vitamins A, B, C and E (group of tocopherols), calcium, selenium, chlorophyllin, alipharin, sulphides, catechin, tetrahy-drocurecumin, seasaminol, glutathione, uric acid, indoles, thiocyanates and protease inhibitors.

Introduction

Pulses are annually grown leguminous crops that yield one to twelve grains/ seeds within a pod, and are often promoted in diet owing to their low cost and many beneficial nutritional effects (Craig 2009). The United Nations general assembly has declared 2016 as the international year of pulses (Oyeyinka et al. 2016). The Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) describes pulses as the crops that are harvested only for dry grain. This definition excludes crops that are harvested green as food sources (such as green beans and green peas), crops that are used only for sowing purposes (such as alfalfa and clover) and crops used primarily for oil extraction (such as peanuts and soybean). India is the largest producer (around 25%) of pulses in the world and the Indian subcontinent covers the leading area in terms of consumption of pulses. It was also suggested that India can also increase the production output by 30%, considering a rise in government support prices for stimulating the growth of pulses and in case of a normal monsoon season (FAOSTAT 2008). The mainly grown pulses in India include mungbean (green gram), chickpea (Bengal gram), urd bean (black gram), lentil (masur), pigeon pea (arhar), cowpea, horse gram and peas (Tiwari and Singh 2012). In the western countries, nowadays pulses are one of the preferred food sources of the population, owing to ideological reasons and interest in vegetarian diet.

Introduction

Functional elements are non-conventional biomolecules in foods that have the ability to modulate one or more body metabolic processes or pathways, leading in health advantages and well-being promotion. Research has demonstrated a connection between food, health and well-being functional elements. Consequently, functional elements have health-promoting roles connected with multiple progressive steps at various phases of disease control, from initiation to growth. They can therefore be implemented efficiently in disease therapy and prevention. Therefore, the borderline between food and medicine is becoming very thin at a moment when the role of a healthy diet in stopping non-communicable diseases is well recognized. Functional elements include plant-derived, non-nutritious and biologically active chemicals that operate in the body to avoid certain non-communicable diseases from occurring.

Food contains over 900 phytochemicals. One fruit or vegetable serving (about 120g) can contain as many as 100 distinct phytochemicals. Previously, functional elements were believed to happen predominantly only as phytochemicals in plant products including whole grains, fruits and vegetables. However, in animal goods such as milk, fermented dairy products and cold water fish, probiotics, conjugated linolenic acid, long-chain omega-3, −6 and −9 polyunsaturated fatty acids and bioactive peptides are also discovered. Usually, functional elements happen in various forms in food such as glycosylated, esterified, thiolated or hydroxylated materials. They also have numerous metabolic operations that enable positive impacts in the body on several illnesses and target tissues (Balic et al. 2020).

Introduction

Society is dynamic. The requirement of society varies in course of time. During the life process human being faces lots of health hazards which are mostly due to intake of various foods. So people become cautious about the intake of food and think about the quality of foods which can protect the health of human being. In ancient times people made medicines from plant extracts to protect their health. In 1989, Dr. Stephen coined the term “Nutraceuticals” which is combination of nutrition and pharmaceutical. Nutrition is required for health and pharmaceuticals provide remedy for sickness. So it is a preventive approach. Nowadays, the definition of nutraceuticals has been expanded to include vitamins, minerals, herbs and other botanicals, amino acids, and dietary substance for human use as a supplement diet (Stauffer, 1999).

Nutraceuticals are dietary supplements made only from whole foods to augment health. Currently over 470 nutraceutical and functional food products are available with documented health benefits (Brower, 1999). The patients are much aware about the side effects of chemical agents in short and long term therapy. So to avoid medicine used for small diseases, new therapies came into trend with the help of nutritional approaches i.e. “Nutraceuticals”. The use of nutraceuticals becomes easier than pharmaceuticals since nutraceuticals does not require any animal verification for its use in human. Nutraceuticals,

Functional foods and Dietary Supplements are most important concept in food science. They have distinction amongst themselves.

Introduction

The gut microbiota is the complex and dynamic community of microorganisms that includes various bacteria, fungi and other microorganisms, proliferate and lead a symbiotic/mutual relationship with the host system. These microorganisms protect the host against pathogens by unique mechanisms, helps to maintain shape and strengthen the intestinal epithelium and boost immune response. Diverse bacterial metabolites can immigrate the host bloodstream and other parts of the body via various channels in humans and animals, such as gut-microbiota-brain, gut microbiota-skin, gut-vagina, gut liver, gut-bones etc. However, many aspects of modern lifestyle would alter the gut microbiota and lead to numerous diseases including inflammatory bowel disease, diabetes mellitus, obesity, and metabolic syndrome. Probiotics and other beneficial microbes exert many beneficial effects on their hosts by modulating the gut microbiota. While the term probiotic is reserved only for well-characterised strains with clinically proven health benefits, other beneficial microorganisms include, organisms responsible for the fermentation of foods viz. yogurt, kefir, kombucha, kimchi and many others that have been shown to have distinct health benefits. Interestingly, major group of these beneficial organisms belong to lactic acid bacteria.

Noise has become a very important “stress factor” in the environment of man especially with regard to health. However, not much attention is being paid towards its elimination or control in dairy plants. The harmful effects of noise(s) in the workplace as an occupational hazard is really a cause of great concern. Apart from reducing the work efficiency, in the long run it causes serious auditory and non-auditory effects on the worker. Thus, it becomes imperative to set legal standards in workplaces to be monitored constantly to avoid or reduce the health hazards of the workers.

Noise and Noise Pollution

Noise is often defined as “Unwanted Sound” or “Undesirable Sound”. The “Noise Pollution” has been coined to signify the vast cacophony of sounds that are being produced in the modern life, leading to health hazards.

Abstract

Ghee means the pure clarified fat derived solely from milk or curd or from desi (cooking) butter or from cream to which no coloring matter or preservative has been added. It is the second largest dairy product prepared from milk and it is almost 35% of total milk production. Unfortunately, the producers or the middle- men involved in the ghee trade, tend to adulterate ghee with cheaper oils and fats like vegetable oils, animal body fats, hydrogenated fats and sometimes even the non-edible mineral oils, especially during lean season to earn more money. Recently, the problem of adulteration has assumed a very serious dimension. Such a situation has tarnished the image of dairy industry. Methods presently adopted by food law enforcing agencies to ensure the quality of ghee are mainly based on the physico- chemical constants, but all these methods have some limitations. So researchers are always in search of different innovative methods to check the quality of ghee.

Abstract

Probiosis has emerged in the early 20^th century after Ellie Metchnikoff proposed his hypothesis that organisms were reponsible for longivity of ethnic people of Balkan region of Russia and ever since it has grow into a major scientific field which has its applications extending into farming, aquaculture and prophylactics in humans. Vast research was carried out on this topic and Lactobacillus sp. and Bifidobacterium sp, are the two important genus that are highly studied and widely recognized universally as conventional probiotics. Apart from these two genus there exists many other bacterial species which have shown promising probiotic potential. Such non conventional probiotics are widely used in some parts of world as commercial food products with health beneficial effects, pharmaceutical products or being tested for their safe utilization in human beings. The present chapter tries to covers some genera and their potential and application in prophylactics.

INTRODUCTION

Food processing as a technological regime is undergoing a revolutionary change in terms of conception, product and process design and energetics. The conventional approach of a food processor is to develop products with a long shelf-life in user friendly packaging systems. Food processors are usually bothered about sensory attributes and microbiological profiles without much emphasis on the fate of heat labile nutritional and nutraceutical components. The changing consumer perception is slowly but steadily leading towards emergence of novel technologies without depending upon conventional thermal processing. A few years before, non-thermal techniques have emerged for food processing and preservation, but these techniques were restricted to framing of fundamentals with regard to the inactivation of vegetative and reproductive bodies of microbes and the deteriorative enzymes.

Non-thermal preservation technologies inhibit microorganisms and enzymes without relying primarily on high temperatures. They are designed to preserve freshness, colour, flavour, texture and heat-sensitive nutrients more effectively than conventional thermal treatments. These methods employ hydrostatic pressure, electrical energy, electromagnetic radiation, reactive species or mechanical forces to damage microbial cells and disrupt essential biological functions. The chapter examines high-pressure processing, pulsed electric fields, cold plasma, ultrasound, irradiation, pulsed light and edible coatings. It explains their operating principles, mechanisms, applications and nutritional implications. These technologies offer promising alternatives for producing safe, minimally processed foods, although equipment costs, process optimisation and industrial scalability remain important considerations.