eChapters

As a result of a number of health advantages provided by functional foods, a substantial rise in their popularity has been seen in recent years (Keservani et al., 2010).

Introduction

India is considered as the “Home of Spices”. They are a prized group of minor components and have been an integral ingredient of Indian diet. Since antiquity, spices form an important part of the Ayurvedic Pharmacopoeia (The Indian System of Medicine), with their widespread traditional use. With its wide climatic conditions and topographical features, India naturally possesses wide variety of medicinal flora. The country enjoys the distinction of being the largest producer and consumer of spices as well as the fastest growing spice market in the world.

Spices are potent plant foods that possess a wide range of nutrient bioactive compounds that contribute to improve health, while adding variety, colour, flavour and aroma to daily diet. The term spice or condiment applies to “such natural plant or vegetable products or mixtures thereof, in whole or ground form, as are used for imparting flavour, aroma and piquancy to and for seasoning food” (Sikri and Berwal, 2008).

Webster (2011) describes spices as ‘Any of various aromatic vegetable productions as pepper, cinnamon, nutmeg, mace, allspice, ginger, cloves, etc., used in cookery to season and to flavour sauces, pickles, etc.; a vegetable condiment or relish, usually in the form of a powder; also, as condiments collectively’.

According to Indian Philosophy (Bhat, 2012) the physical body is called Annamaya Kosha.A body, when well nourished grows well by absorbing the energies from the food consumed. Fasting is another aspect of traditional food system. It is meant to purify the mind and the body.

Introduction

Food safety and quality assumes paramount significance in any food industry. Globalization has driven both the food and agricultural firms to adopt systems that functions in a way to interlink food standards and international trade so as to achieve superior food quality and safety. Food industries follow several regional and international food safety procedures to procure certification from the government and other agencies in order to survive in both domestic and international markets (Ryan, 2014). The essential components in the food safety include handling, preparation and storing of the food products to ensure the food quality and to avoid food-borne diseases. The unwanted substances in a food product included by an accident is known as contaminants and the unwanted substance added to the food product to reduce the cost or to improve the other properties are known as adulterants. Contaminants and adulterants may lead to pathogens and toxins that pose serious concerns over the health of the consumer (Jha, 2016). The adulterants and contaminants are classified as physical adulterants and contaminants, chemical adulterants and residues, microbiological and pathogenic contaminants and toxins.

Hazards in food can be categorized into physical, chemical and biological.

Physical Hazards: Physical hazards are foreign organic or inorganic objects or extraneous materials in the food products. Hard and sharp physical hazards are of particular concern. Examples of physical hazards are broken glass, plastics, metal pieces, wood pieces, stones etc.

1. Introduction

In recent years, consumers have been demanding convenient, healthy and safe foods which have ’fresh-like’ characteristics with a long shelf-life. These demands include important food quality such as appearance, texture, taste and nutritional content which are strongly impacted by the way it is processed. Another major concern among the consumers is food safety and quality. The shelf-life of the food products are mostly influenced due to the action of various harmful microorganisms and enzymes. The conventional food processing technologies, such as thermal treatments (pasteurisation and high temperature sterilisation), evaporation, drying, frying and baking can assure the microbiological safety and/or stability of processed food products, but affects the food quality and nutrients (heat sensitive vitamins, flavour and other bioactive compounds) (Zhang et al., 2019)

Previous Year Questions

1. No questions were asked in past 10 years

Availability of Foodgrains

• Net availability of foodgrains = Gross Production (-) seed, feed & wastage, (-) exports imports (+/-) change in stocks.

What are Genes? Genes are linear sequences of nucleotides of DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid). Each gene consists of a specific sequence of nucleotides and is responsible for determining a particular characteristic of cell. Nucleotides consist of nitrogen –containing compounds called bases, joined to the sugar, deoxyribose and to phosphate. The nucleotide bases are the purines, adenine and guanine and the pyrimidines, thymine and cytosine.

A number of genes are joined together to form a structure called a chromosome.

DNA consists of two strands of nucleotides twisted around each other into a double helical structure. The nucleotide bases are arranged in a specific sequence in each strand. The strand has a backbone of sugar and phosphate from which the bases protrude.

Bacteriophage is the term applied to bacterial viruses. Bacteriophage having the ability to lyse certain sensitive living cells. Phages are small particles, which can only be seen in the electron microscope after the application of suitable staining techniques. All phages have a head and most have a tail. The head may be isometric or prelate with a hexagonal outline.

There are two types of phages virulent and temperate which enter a different relationship with the host, the lytic and lysogenic cycles respectively.

12.1 Bactofugation
Using a specially constructed hermetic centrifuge, the Bactofugation® method separates bacteria—including especially the spores produced by particular bacterial strains—from milk. The RPM rises to 60000. Since their density is larger than that of milk, this technique has shown to be a quick approach of lowering the spore count in milk. Usually separating the milk into a portion more or less free from germs, bactofugation produces a concentrate (bactofugate), containing generally both spores and bacteria in general and amounts to up to 3% of the feed to the Bactofuge.
12.2 Dehydration
One can preserve the milk by dehydrating to different degrees. The “shelflife” of the dehydrated milk is longer than that of milk kept refrigerated and pasteurised. Concentrated or dry milk (milk powder) is milk from which some or all of the water has been removed. More than eighty-percent of milk is water. Eliminating water can help to preserve milks the best way. One can accomplish it freeze drying or by drum or spray drying.
12.2.1 Condensed Milk
Eliminating some of the water from whole or partially/fully skimmed milk, either with or without sugar, results in condensed milk. Generally speaking, “condensed milk” is “full cream sweetened condensed milk,” whereas “evaporated milk” is used for “full cream unsweetened condensed milk.” Variations in skimmed milk are labeled “sweetened condensed skim milk” and “unsweetened condensed skim milk.” For full cream products, milk solids have a concentration ratio of about 1:2.5; for sweetened condensed skim milk, that ratio is 1:3. Annexure-I has an exhaustive composition chart for condensed milk.

1. Introduction

Dairy industry size and demand precede all other segments of food industry. Reporting milk production of 146.3 million tonnes in 2014-15, India is currently occupying first position in world scenario (NDDB, 2015). In spite of limited shelf-life, milk offers various opportunities of product diversification, processing optimisation and convenient packaging solutions. All categories of dairy products are unique and vary in market value. The operating margins in value-added dairy products are almost twice of liquid milk business due to reduced need of refrigeration and added shelf-life. The appeal and satiety it offers makes them ambrosia for consumers. Baked and fried dairy products (BFDP) are those class of dairy products in which main processing operation is either baking or frying. In addition to preservation of milk solids for longer time at room temperature, manufacture of baked and fried dairy products add value to milk and also provide considerable employment opportunity (Pal and Raju, 2007;Patil, 2011). The characteristic flavour and colour development of the product rely on this unit operation or cooking method and it cannot be replaced. The unique difference in baked and fried dairy products is that in baking dough is prepared and for frying batter is prepared which vary significantly in characteristics (Table 1). The quality of the finished product greatly depends on how the dough or batter is handled.

Formulation & method of bread making Baking is an exact science that requires precise measuring and accuracy. Accuracy is crucial in baking because most baked products are made from the same basic ingredients: flour, liquid, fat, sugar, salt etc. the difference between baked products are often the proportion of each ingredients in the formula. If the proportions are off, you will end up with a different product or an unacceptable product.

    1.    Absorbance (A) - Defined as –log (1-a) = log (1/t), where ‘a’ is the absorbance and‘t’ the transmittance of a medium through which a light beam passes.

    2.    Absorption coefficient (a) - The relative decrease in the intensity of a collimated beam of electromagnetic radiation, as a result of absorption by a medium, during traversal of an infinitesimal layer of the medium, divided by the length traversed.

    3.    Acceleration due to gravity (g) - The standard value (9.80665 m/s2) of the acceleration experienced by a body in the earth’s gravitational field.

    4.    Acid - Historically, a substance that yields an H+ ion when it dissociates in solution, resulting in a pH< 7. In the Brönsted definition, an acid is a substance that donates a proton in any type of reaction. The most general definition, due to G.N. Lewis, classifies any chemical species capable of accepting an electron pair as an acid.

    5.    Acid dissociation constant (Ka) - The equilibrium constant for the dissociation of an acid HA through the reaction HA + H2O1 A- + H3O+. The quantity pKa = -log Ka is often used to express the acid dissociation constant

    6.    Acyl groups - Groups formed by removing the hydroxy groups from oxoacids that have the general structure RC (=O) (OH) and replacement analogues of such acyl groups.

    7.    Adiabatic process - A thermodynamic process in which no heat enters or leaves the system.

1.1. IMPORTANCE OF FOOD MICROBIOLOGY

Food may be defined as substances that provide nutrients, which when eaten and absorbed by the body, maintain life and growth. Food is basically energy stored in plant and animal foods in chemical form. On consumption, the stored form gets converted to physiological energy. Food is the prime necessity of life. Man has exhibited much thought and foresight in cultivating a variety of grains, fruits, vegetables, nuts and oilseeds and in rearing birds and animals for use as food.

Of the three primary needs of an individual, food, clothing and shelter, ‘food’ occupies the most important place. The biodiversity of foods- cereals, millets, pulses, oilseeds, spices, fruits and vegetables is varied and high in India, where we have varied agro-climatic regions from Kashmir to Kanyakumari. All the fifteen major climates in the world exist in India. India is the second largest producer of food in the world. The impact of green revolution is remarkable in India with many fold increased food production in the last five decades. The full potential of Indian agriculture can not be realized unless India emerges as a major player in the World agriculture.

World population is set to go beyond nine billion by 2050 and demand for food is likely to increase further because of growing affluence and globalization. Food security is achieved when all people have physical and economic access to sufficient, safe and nutritious value added food. India is emerging as a food power in the international trade of foods. The food processing industry in India has been identified as one of thrust areas for the development of the country. It has emerged as a highly perspective sector with immense potential in food processing. The future of Indian food processing industries is bright, provided it improves its quality of products as per international standards.The quality of food processing refers to the adherence of physical, chemical, biological, nutritional and sensory parameters required to achieve the wholesomeness of a food product. Quality control has become an important aspect for food processing industry for both domestic and export markets.

A. Construction, Use and Care of Light Microscope
Introduction
Microorganism are invisible to naked eyes, hence their detailed study requires a microscope. A microscope can be defined as an optical instrument consisting of a lens or a combination of lenses for getting enlarged or magnified images of minute objects. A simple microscope is essentially an ordinary magnifying lens held on an adjustable stand. Usually it gives magnification up to 20 times the size of the object. A compound microscope consists of two separate lens system – the objective and the eye piece. It gives much greater magnification (100-1500 times) than a simple microscope and is, therefore useful for viewing and examining very minute objects like protozoa, bacteria, yeast, mold and algae which cannot be seen with naked eyes.
The objective of this exercise is to familiarize the students with construction and the use of compound light microscope.
1. Construction of Microscope
A microscope contrite various parts in which principle parts are described below:
i) Frame work: All microscopes have a basic frame structure which includes the arm and base. All other parts are attached to this framework and the base support the microscope.
ii) Stage: It is a horizontal platform that supports the microscopic slide. It has a mechanical stage, which is used for holding and moving the slide around on the stage.

Revolutionizing skin cancer detection
The diagnostic process for skin cancer is evolving. Physicians have in the past relied upon physical exams to be followed by scanning and biopsies taking anywhere between 15 days to return results. Although most abnormalities turn out to be non-cancerous, this is distressing to patients and contributes to healthcare costs. Additionally, certain growths that turn out to be cancerous remain undiagnosed since they have not been visible.
Breakthrough startup Damae Medical is set to reverse this process. The startup has developed an advanced probe that is able to take 3D images of the skin to unveil the full extent of abnormalities in real time. This enables doctors to diagnose in an instant, enabling improved personalized treatment. When an operation is required only diseased tissue is removed to prevent unnecessary treatments and improved outcomes in patients.
The Origins in the Institut d’Optique
The beginnings of Damae Medical can be traced to Palaiseau-based Institut d’Optique where in 2013 two photonics students envisaged potential in an emerging imaging tech. Together with the inventor himself in 2014, they cofounded Damae Medical by taking an exclusive license to the core family of patents held by three partner institutions. While this contract was beneficial in launching the company to an early growth spurt, in the long run created difficulty in exercising control. This was resolved by taking an equity-forcontrol purchase in 2019 by Damae to acquire the foundational patent

Introduction

Over the past few decades, probiotics have become the most promising and emerging field in human nutrition and health across the world including India and other developing countries. The global profit generated from the probiotic market is expected to reach approximately 12,753.4 million US$ by the end of 2026 (Probiotic market report, 2018). The factor fueling the demand for probiotics is the growing awareness among consumers about their health benefits. The association of probiotics with health benefits stretches back to a time before microbes were discovered. However, the scientific evidence of the health benefits of probiotic microorganisms on the wellbeing of the host was firstly proposed by Russian Nobel laureate Ellie Metchnikoff in 1905. He reported that consumption of fermented milk containing Lactobacillus spp. is responsible for the healthy and long life of Bulgarian people (Anukam & Reid, 2007). Afterward, several of scientific progressions were made to reach the current status where probiotics are not only the subject of food and medical research but also the source of a multi-billion dollar global industry.

The term probiotic is derived from the Greek words, which means ‘for life’. According to the Food and Agriculture Association of the United Nations (FAO) and World Health Organization (WHO), probiotics are defined as “live microorganisms which when administered in adequate amount promote the health of the host” (Joint, FAO, 2002). In 2014, International Scientific Association for Probiotics and Prebiotics (IPPA) did minor correction in the definition given by FAO-WHO and defined them as “Live microorganisms that, when administered in adequate amounts, confer a health benefit on the host”

Introduction

Cocoa beans are extracted from the pod of a tree crop Theobroma cacao. It is mainly cultivated in tropical and subtropical countries. In terms of world production, Ivory Coast and Ghana contribute about 65 percent of world production. Cocoa beans are the main ingredient in chocolate. (Teye, E et al 2014). One of the earliest examples of chocolate consumption comes from the Mayans. The Maya drink was prepared with cocoa and water and often included cinnamon and black pepper. It was also known as the “Food of the Gods” and offered to Emperor Moctezuma II by the Aztecs, (Verna, R. 2013). Christopher Columbus was the first European to encounter cocoa in 1502.

Abstract

Rice is the most produced and consumed source of stable food in J andK, and is excellent in genetic diversity. Rice production is the principal activity and a major source of income for the State. Traditional rice varieties have an enhancing potential in wide range of nutraceutical and functional foods. Besides possessing medicinal and nutritional properties, the by-products generated from these rice varieties in various post harvest operations are equally valuable. Traditional healers and local farmers have been using these traditional varieties in ayurveda and in curing of various kinds of ailments, such as cooling the body in ayurvedic treatments, improving vocal clarity, curing of boils, swellings and skin blemishes. Extracts of brown rice are also used as energy drink in individuals, patients and in treatment of chronic gastric problems, jaundice, dysenteric complaints and to increase lactation and nutrition to Childs. Sticky glutinous rice has been reported in treatment of stomach upsets, nausea, heart-burn and indigestion. Brown rice extracts have been reported in treatments of breast and stomach cancer and warts.

Metabolic Processes in Bacterial Cells

All living cells are continually undergoing processes of replication, breakdown, synthesis and repair. The overall term used to describe these processes is metabolism and refers to all the different reactions that must occur in order for a cell to grow and reproduce. The pathways of metabolism are remarkably similar in all living cells. The differences that do occur usually reflect the availability of nutrients or the need for a cell to provide for a specific function. This may be secretion, storage, structural support, energy for movement, or reproduction. Our knowledge of many of the metabolic processes that occur in human cells has been derived from research on the major pathways that also occur in microbial cells.

Catabolism is the process of breakdown of complex molecules, usually with the release of energy. Anabolism refers to the synthesis of new or replacement molecules. This is an energy-requiring process. A metabolic pathway is a series of reactions in the process of metabolism.

The energy from the sun that is trapped and used to produce glucose is released when a molecule of glucose is broken down during metabolism. This complex process is called oxidation, or respiration, and consists of a number of interrelated biochemical pathways, including those of glycolysis, fermentation and aerobic respiration. Reactions that occur in the presence of oxygen are termed aerobic; those that occur in the absence of oxygen are anaerobic. Many of these reactions require the involvement of various cofactors as well as enzymes, and result in the production of energy which is captured by the synthesis of a small molecule called adenosine triphosphate (AT). ATP is termed an ‘energy-rich storage molecule’ because breakdown of ATP releases energy for use in other reactions in the cell.

According to Li and Tian (2012) a pure-culture planktonic growth of bacteria is rarely found in natural environments.There is a physical interaction between the bacterial cells in biofilms (Kolenbrander, 2002; Watnick and Kolter,2000).The bacteria can organize into groups and can form well-organized communities. They also communicate for coordinated activities (Davey and O toole,2000; Watnick et al., 2000; Nadell et al., 2009). Quorum-sensing mechanisms are common in prokaryotic and single-celled eukaryotic organisms like fungi (van Bodman et al, 2008; Sordi and Muhlschlegal, 2009). For any biofilm structure to develop a high level of cell density is important (Kolenbrander et al., 2002; Kuramitsu et al., 2007 and Webb et al., 2003) and also for checking the effect of antibiotics against planktonic organisms in exponential growth phase using MIC and MBC.This can predict the antibiotic efficacy against rapidly dividing bacteria in acute infections. Papanna, Shobharani and Agrawal Renu (2010) studied the interception of quorum sensing signal molecule

Biofilms play an important part in biotechnology, immunology, biofouling and biodeterioration (Fleming and Wingender, 2001; Dunne, 2002). When the pathogenic cells adhere to the surface, it has been found that the transcription of the EPS genes get stimulated (Dunne, 2002). If EPS gene expression are monitored it can provide a good understanding of biofilm phenotypes (Allison and Sutherland, 1997; Helm and Naumann, 1995; Petersen et al., 2005). EPS serves many functions. It also enables the bacteria to capture nutrients (Pontefract,1991).The formation of biofilm goes through a mechanism which is different from species to species. Even the matrix thickness can be different from 0.2 to 1.0pm depending on the species and doubling time of the cells as thickness of 10 to 30 nm has been found in some bacteria species (Sleytr,1997). The cells secrete polysaccharides, proteins, nucleic acids and glycoproteins. Adherence on solid surfaces by microorganisms is a very complicated process that depends mostly on extracellular molecule production (Czaczyk and Myszka, 2007). The biosynthesis of EPS provides an optimal environment in which genetic material between the cells can be exchanged. This is needed for cell identification and the antigenic properties are helpful in serological characterization of the cells. Among the various compounds of extracellular carbohydrates are acetate esters, pyruvtes, formates, succinates, polysaccharides and proteins (Sutherland, 2001a).

Microbial life abounds on a solid substrate. Water and some nutrients are sufficient to allow the microbial construction called biofilm. Biofilm-associated infections (BAI) can enhance chronic infections in which the bacterial pathogens can persist causing cross-contamination of the food products.

Giaouris et al. (2014) worked on the meat processing and biofilm formation by foodborne bacteria. Work on seafoods has been well worked by Mizan et al. (2015). Habimana et al. (2010) studied them in feed industry on Salmonella versus host resident flora strains. Lin et al. (2017) have studied the characteristics of some food borne pathogens. In a study by Rao et al. (2020) cold atmospheric plasma can be a solution to prevent biofilms.Ferriol-Gonzalez et al. (2020) worked out that bacteriophages can be helpful to remove biofims. According to Przekwas et al. (2020) in early stage of growth of the biofilm use of ascorbic acid can be helpful for the removal of biofilms. Apples can be protected from pathogenic bacteria by protecting them using harmless bacteria. It leads towards the development of alternative foodborne-pathogen-control strategies. Listeria monocytogenes is a big concern in the NE part of India.

Joana et al.(2016) have written a critical review on biofilms and have discussed newer methods to study biofilms. These have given a deep knowledge on the physiology, structure and composition of biofilms. More polar amino acids were present in ABPs but QSPs were made up of higher number of neutral amino acids.This helps in recognition. Web application WebLogo help in generating sequence logos (Crooks et al., 2004). The uncharged polar amino acid is present at the first, third and fifth positions.The basis of SVM model is on the amino acid composition of the peptides. The Weka model is based on selected eight inputs which is trained on the NT5 dataset and is accurate, sensitive and specific.Peptide drugs are FDA approved and a total of 242 sequences of biotech peptides/proteins are available at the Drug Bank database. To identify potential anti-biofilm activity for characterization the peptide sequences are submitted on the module of dPABBs. The prediction outcomes are displayed under the ‘Putative ABPs’ section(http://ab-openlab.

Introduction

Biological activation of grain or germination is a natural, biological processing techniques and traditional method that can be used to improve the nutritional, functional, and sensory properties of grains. During biological activation of grains, extensive phytochemical changes were reported in a variety of food grains, which reflects a dynamic and complex nutrient flux including remobilization, degradation and accumulation. During this process many hydrolytic enzymes were activated to hydrolyze the starches, proteins and, non-starch polysaccharides, which results in more oligosaccharides and free amino acids. Many nutrients and bioactive compounds reportedly increase and then decrease as they are utilized by the growing plant, which results in degradation of the high molecular weight polymers for generation of bio-functional substances. The biological activation of grains also realizes a significant growth of nutritional value by increasing the bioavailability of nutritional compounds, vitamins, bio-elements and other biologically active substances due to the partial hydrolysis of starch, proteins, hemicelluloses and even celluloses. Biological activation triggers the enzymatic activity in grain and dormant hydrolytic enzymes are activated, breaking down starch, fibers and proteins and leading to an increase in the amount of digestible compounds along with improvement of functional properties without any chemical modification. Also, the activity of some anti-nutritional factors (enzyme inhibitors, haemagglutinins, anti-vitamins etc.) decreases or disappears during activation, allowing a complete valorization of biological compounds in grains. During biological activation hydrolytic amylase enzymes, proteolytic enzymes, and catalase were activated in grains, which enhances the starch degradation, a complex biochemical process and thus lead to the conversion of insoluble granules to soluble starch and dextrin. Apart from positive shifting in the level of nutrition, biochemical activities which occur during activation also generate bioactive components of health-promoting activities through the enzymatic actions that are antioxidants in nature, such as ascorbic acid, tocopherols, tocotrienols and phenolic compounds, thus resulting in an increase of antioxidant activity.

Introduction

Humans have primarily consumed "meat/meat products based on where they lived and how they evolved. According to Food Safety and Standards Act 2006, “meat means fresh meat, poultry and game meat which could be in the form of whole pieces, cuts or comminuted (minced etc.), whereas, meat products are those that have been processed by various methods so that they no longer resemble fresh meat”. These products include meat, poultry, and game products in whole pieces or cuts that are cured salted and dried, processed by non-heat treatment, fermented non-heat treated products, heat treated or frozen products. Edible casings used for sausages etc. also come in the category of meat and meat products. Through a notification dated 12^th September, 2017, the FSSAI has included domestic rabbits (Oryctolagus cuniculus) in the Food Safety and Standards (Food Products Standards and Food Additives) Regulation 2011 in the regulation under meat and meat products.

With the advent of globalisation, there has been an increase in food trade which has led to the introduction of exotic meat and meat products. Moreover, rapidly growing economies like India, now demonstrate a growing appetite for meat. As the consumer demand for high quality meat is increasing in most countries, the meat industry should consistently produce and supply quality meat that is safe and healthy for the consumer to ensure continued consumption of meat products.

Introduction

Several hazardous chemicals, microbes, and techniques like recombinant DNA technology are used for research and development work in research Institutes and universities. Therefore, the researchers, technical, helping and supporting staffs as well as the laboratory outputs must be kept free from contaminations. Thus, biosafety is necessary to prevent unintentional exposure/ release of hazardous chemicals, microbes/pathogens, and toxins to the laboratory staff and environment. Following the biosafety guidelines and ethical considerations are essential to maintain safety standards for the researchers as well as the environment. This chapter deals with various biosafety measures and ethical issues to be strictly followed while working in a research laboratory. The required safety level needs to be determined as per the chemical/biological materials are used in the laboratory to keep the researcher/environment safe for sustainable research and developmental activities.

Biosafety

The term biosafety is used to describe the procedure and policies needed to ensure environmental and personal safety. Biosafety refers to the containment principles, technologies and practices that are implemented to prevent unintentional exposure to pathogens, toxins, or their accidental release into the environment. A fundamental objective of any biosafety program is the containment of potentially harmful chemical/biological agents as precautionary safety measures.

Why Biosafety?

With the increasing number of countries adopting molecular biology tools and techniques in life science research and development activities, especially in the areas of agriculture and medicine, the biosafety issues are gaining importance to ensure biological safety for the public and the environment. Conducting research in safe and sustainable manner is not only a personal requirement but essential collective efforts to ensure biological safety for a clean and safe environment. This requires rules, regulations, monitoring bodies, and awareness among the workers as well as the public. Therefore, biosafety per se is an integral part of laboratory research and requires awareness among the researchers so that biological safety can be well taken care from the grassroot level.

Abstract

The use of biosensors is growing in the food industry as a means to ensure food safety and quality because of its versatility in determining biological compounds. It is defined as analytical technique used for detection of analyte that combines a biological component with a physico-chemical detector. The most important contribution of biosensors in the food sectors is to control production processes and ensure food quality and safety by reliable, fast and cost effective procedures. Biosensors have been useful for the evaluation of food composition, particularly in functional food products fortified with phytochemicals, vitamins and minerals.. Biosensors are replacing conventional analytical tools since they offer advantages in size, cost, specificity, rapid response, precision and sensitivity. Future progress in the biosensor technology involves the development of nutraceutical release technology within packaging material where it can be used to trigger the controllable release of bioactive components and targeted delivery of protective agents into the food product. The growing consumer demands for safe and quality food has led the food industries to search for quick and reliable methods for which the applications of the biosensor technique in the field of food processing and quality control are found to be promising.

Introduction

The food that we consume should not only contain all essential nutrients like carbohydrate, protein, fat, vitamins, minerals, fibre etc but also should be hygienic and safe. Safety and quality of food is to be ensured not only during food production but also should be continuously monitored till it reaches the consumer (Coles and Frewer, 2013). The characteristics of food are altered during every processing operations viz., cleaning, sorting, transportation, thermal processing, packaging, storage, distribution etc which may be desirable or undesirable. Persistent physical, chemical and microbiological analyses have to be done at all levels of supply chain to ensure the quality of food. Traditional methods of food safety analysis are spectrophotometry, aerobic plate count method, microscopic plate count, titrations, chromatography etc. Though these techniques provide accurate results, the analysis demand cumbersome extraction steps, trained technical staff and are time consuming (Di-Natale et al., 2000). Hence, steady, sensitive and rapid monitoring of food analysis technique is a need of the hour in the present era. Biosensors can effectively replace the conventional techniques owing to its reliability, rapidity, economic and field applicability (Prasad et al., 2014). Biosensors are an attractive diagnostic alternative owing to their in situ detection ability and comparatively reduced detection time from several days to hours, or even minutes (Ruiz et al., 2017). Rapid food analysis can also minimise spoilage, especially in freshly harvested agricultural commodities, such as fruits and vegetables, meat, fish etc. In addition, the portable detection devices provide in-situ detection capabilities without extensive training and assist in integrating real time analysis in food processing centres.

Ice cream is an emotional as well as a technical product, often associated with happiness, celebration, indulgence, family experiences, and personal enjoyment. This chapter explores the principles of brand building and marketing strategy in the ice cream industry. It explains the difference between a product, label, and brand and examines consumer understanding, product quality, packaging, pricing, visibility, trade marketing, distribution, and innovation. The chapter also addresses launch strategies for new brands and the role of leadership in building long-term brand equity. A successful ice cream brand must combine a clear consumer promise with consistent product quality, availability, attractive presentation, efficient distribution, and memorable consumer experiences.

In economics and business, specifically cost accounting, the break-even-point (BEP) is the point at which cost or expenses and revenue are equal: there is no net loss or gain, and one has “broken even”. A profit or a loss has not been made, although opportunity costs have been paid, and capital has received the risk-adjusted, expected return.
For example, if a business sells less than 1000 liters of milk each day, it will make a loss, if it sells more, it will be a profit. With this information, the business managers will then need to see if they expect to be able to process and sell 1000 liters of milk per day.

Fermentation is one of the ancient techniques that been routinely used to maintain the quality of food products. This process involves the breakdown of complex substances like carbohydrates into smaller ones which assist in extending the shelf life of food products. Fermented foods and beverages shared the major portion of the human diet which positively affect the body. Beer is a low alcoholic drink in which malt, hops and other adjuncts like aromatic herbs, honey and others are fermented with yeast to obtain a product that offers unique flavour, taste and aroma (Sohrabvandi et al., 2012).

Introduction

In simple terms, business refers to buying and selling of products. Business would define itself as an organized effort through companies aimed at supplying consumers with products and services in a return for monetary compensation. However, this simplistic definition is insufficient to assess the impact of the environment on modern international business operations. For easy understanding, modern business can be explained as a complex field of industry and commerce involving activities associated with both production and distribution. These activities cater to the wants and desires of society at one extreme and provide profit for business firms at the other.

Indian leaders, particularly the first Prime Minister Dr. Jawaharlal Nehru, who had conceived the theory of five year plans, had regarded high economic growth and higher income among poor population as the foremost objectives before the newly independent nation. To achieve these objectives, government was made to play a very important role, and since 1951, a series of five year plans have been the driving forces behind the economic prosperity of the country. Despite of experiencing growth in 1950s, it was still lower than that of many Asian countries. Between 1951-79, the Indian economy had grown at an average rate of 3.1 percent a year at constant prices. Growth in the industrial sector had been about 4.5 percent a year, while for the agriculture sector, growth was 3.0 percent over that period. Many of the political leaders associated with the movement were also in support of a socialistic development pattern. They favored state interference in the economy. They encouraged state ownership of core industries.

17.1 Introduction
Butter is a fat concentrate that is produced by churning cream to create a solid bulk, which is subsequently processed. The table creamery butter is produced from the cream or coagulate of cows or buffaloes, or a combination of the two. It may contain common salt and natural colorants such as annatto or carotene, but it should be devoid of other animal lipids, wax, mineral oils, and vegetable oils and fats. The only permitted additives are common salt and natural colorants (annatto and carotene), with no preservatives permitted.. The butter must contain a minimum of 80% milk fat, no more than 1.5% curd, and no more than 3% sodium measured by weight. Diacetyl may be incorporated for flavoring purposes; however, it is prohibited from exceeding 4 ppm. Calcium hydroxide, sodium carbonate, and sodium polyphosphate are permissible additives, provided that their combined weight does not exceed 0.2% of the butter’s weight.
17.2 Classification
The market supplies a wide variety of butter varieties. This varies depending on the kind of cream used in their production as well as other factors. The varieties of butter are:
1. Pasteurized cream butter: Usually made from sweet cream that has been pasteurised. However, this kind of butter has a milder flavour than the same kind of cream that hasn’t been pasteurised.
2. Ripened cream butter: Butter is produced through adding butter culture to cream and incubating it until the desired acidity and flavour are achieved. Authentically made ripened cream butter possesses a mild
flavour commonly known as ‘real butter flavour’.
3. Unripened cream butter: Created from fresh, unripened cream.
4. Salted butter: Butter with added salt.
5. Unsalted butter: Butter without any added salt.
6. Sweet cream butter: Butter made from cream with an acidity level not exceeding 0.2%.

Introduction

The economic choice of any process is the criterion for efficient utilization of the by-product that is produced along side of main product. During manufacture of major dairy products, the dairy industry also ends up in producing different by-products. Various by-products of dairy industry are skim milk, butter milk , whey and ghee residue. Dairy industry is particularly confronted with the problem of economic utilization of whey and ghee residue. The techno-economical problems associated with utilization of these by-products, is now receiving considerable attention. More efficient, cost effective and sophisticated technologies have opened up new vistas for manufacture of number of derived by-products. Further more the market for dairy by-products, as an ingredients in other consumer food products like snacks, ready meals and microwavable food products, has been growing.

1. Calibration of Milk Butyrometer

Introduction

Butyrometer is used for determination of fat for milk and milk products by Gerber method. The milk butyrometer is a graduated vessel, which are designed in such a way that the internal volume of each unit is 0.125 ml which is corresponding to 1 percent fat. Sometimes due to manufacturer’s error, the volume of one unit of milk butyrometer is not exactly equal to 0.125 which leads to subsequent error in results in milk fat. So before starting to use a new butyrometer, it is essential to calibrate for its efficiency in the laboratory. Mercury is used to calibrate milk butyrometer.

Apparatus

Milk butyrometer (0 – 10% graduation), analytical balance

Introduction

Cereals are grown over 73% of the total world harvested area and contribute over 60% to the world food production providing dietary fibre, proteins, energy, minerals and vitamins required for human health. Cereals like rice, maize, wheat, barley, sorghum, and oats are chiefly used in the preparation of traditional fermented foods and beverages. However, the nutritional quality of cereals and the sensory properties of their products are sometimes inferior in comparison with dairy products. The reasons behind this the lower protein content, deficiency of certain essential amino acids, the presence of determined anti-nutrients (phytic acid, tanins and polyphenols) and the coarse nature.

Cereal Processing

    1.    The protein content of wheat grain varies widely, but for bread making a value of at least 11% is required.

    2.    Low grain sulphur will result in low concentrations of the sulphur-containing amino acids, cystine and methionine, and may result in poor loaf volume.

    3.    During seed germination endosperm starch is converted into soluble glucose and maltose to support the developing embryo. This is brought about by enzymatic activity, especially the enzyme a-amylase.

    4.    Excessive a-amylase levels result in the formation of a darkened loaf crust as a result of sugar caramelization and a sticky crumb structure which can cause problems during slicing.

    5.    Wheat with a protein level below 10% is preferred to reduce gluten elasticity.

    6.    There is a very good correlation between grain nitrogen and the amount of malt extract achieved, low grain nitrogen giving more fermentable extract

    7.    The term ‘coarse grains milling’ is a very broad one that refers to the comminution of the berries of the wheat, barley and other coarse grain crops.

1. Introduction

The development of food products using composite flour has increased and is attracting much attention from researchers, especially in the production of bakery products and pastries. This article focuses on the use of composite flour to produce food products, namely bread, biscuits, and pasta, with looks at on its impact, following some improvements made, on the sensory quality, rheology characteristics, and nutritional values as well as its overall acceptance. The blending of wheat flour with various sources of tubers, legumes, cereals and fruit flour in different percentages to produce variety of food products are also reported. The positive effects of the use of composite flour can be seen in the final product related to the functional and physicochemical properties and health benefits of raw blended flour along with percentage blending. Overall, composite flour is a good new approach to utilizing uncommon food products as the application of composite flour produced products with different characteristics and quality, depending on the types and percentage of wheat flour used in the formulation.

Bread has been the staple food worldwide and habit of bread is derived in part due to the convenience and wholesomeness. Wheat is a commonly used cereal for making bread as it gives the desired texture due to the presence of gluten forming proteins like gliadins and glutenins (Decock & Cappelle, 2005). In earlier times idea of composite flour in developing countries originated in order to cut down on import of wheat (as it was not grown in many countries) but in recent past refined wheat flour consumption has lead to health issues and thus in order to improve nutritional and functional properties composite flour has been the norm. Composite flour is the one obtained by mixing wheat flour with cereal and legume flours for making bread and biscuits (Dendy, 1992). However, mixing of non-wheat flours, roots and tubers, legumes or other raw materials can also be regarded as composite flour.

Importance of Foods

The word “instant” has been used in widely different types of premixes to specify the products either as ready-to-eat food or semi processed foods. The instant premixes available in Indian market were classified as Indian products and Westernized or sophisticated products. The instant mixes included under Indian market products are spice mixes, snack mixes and desert and sweet meat mixes. The Westernized products (instant mixes) contained soup mixes, beverage mixes, desert mixes and soft drink mixes.

Convenience foods are gaining popularity in recent years as they are very easy to handle, require minimum storage space and are attractive. Convenience foods have emerged as a new set of products in the international market. Most of the traditional foods that are commercially available in our country are being prepared / processed by cottage industries and by some of the multinational companies. The various types of convenience foods/ instant mixes that are presently being processed, marketed and consumed all over the country. Supplementation with protein-rich sources and preparation of acceptable ready-to-eat snack foods would not only correct its nutritional inadequacies, but would also provide a variety.

Instant mixes were high in nutritive value especially needed for armed forces, light in weight, easy to carry and prepare. Rapid industrialization and urbanization and changes in eating habits of Indian people led to very high demand for ready-to-use snack foods. The convenience instant foods are meeting the urgent and exigency situations of offering hospitality to unexpected guests.

Changing life styles and values are at the root of considerable changes in eating habits over the last few years. Hand-in-hand with a strong demand for fast and take away foods, there has been a marked upturn in popularity for convenience foods in India. The major reasons for this trend are: the decline of the family meal time, growth in disposal incomes (only in cases of city dwellers), the desire for more leisure time and demand for “foreign” or “sophisticated” dishes inspired by the media and increased travel.

Introduction

About sixty percent of the world’s food intake comes from the three major crops, i.e., wheat, rice and maize (Thielecke and Nugent, 2018). Depending upon the country of utilization and consumption, the products made from cereals such as barley, wheat, maize, triticale, spelt, buckwheat, rice etc. can vary in the range of pasta, bread, pastries, soups, chapatti, cooked rice etc. World cereal utilization in 2021/22 is forecasted at 2,811 million tonnes and the worldwide production of cereals is expected to reach 2,818 million tonnes by 2025 (FAO, 2020).

13.1 Challenges in the technology transfer process
Technology transfer (TT) is more complex and involves the complex interrelationships between universities, research institutes, the private sector, the state, and society. Though TT is all about translating research findings into purposeful solutions that can support the economy and society, it is not a linear process. The challenges can be described as legal, institutional, cultural, financial, policy, and human resource. All this is accompanied by bottlenecks that inhibit or decelerate the diffusion of promising technologies.
13.1.1 Legal and intellectual property challenges
The vital component of technology transfer is the proper management of intellectual property (IP), which is often the most challenging aspect.
• Ambiguities in IP ownership: During multi-institutional or shared funder research, ownership is quite controversial. As an example, when a government lab and a university collaborate on the project, there is ambiguity as to who would have the ultimate licensing authority over the technology: the university, the lab, or the funding agency. This kind of fight hinders commercialisation and scares off industry partners.
• Lengthy patent filing and prosecution timelines: In several jurisdictions, the filings, examination, and granting of a patent may take between three and five years or more. Such delay is not compatible with the rapid cycle of invention in other fields such as ICT or biotechnology, where patent claims may become invalid before they are granted.
• High costs of IP protection: International direct patenting, like under the Patent Cooperation Treaty (PCT), is costly and involves legal services, fees, and upkeep costs. These costs are excessively high, which cannot be easily compensated by universities and startups, and where technologies are not secured or limited to local markets.

Food safety scientifically describes various methods of handling, preparation and storage of food to prevent any foodborne illnesses. However, it is important to check the safety between industry, market and the consumer. From the food industry to the market the practices relating to food labeling, food hygiene, food additives and pesticide residues are important to be looked into and the policies on biotechnology. The governmental imports and exports needs to be given proper guidelines. Certification systems and Inspection for foods need to be installed which should be clean and corruption free. When all this is properly considered the food could be safe in the market. This may allow for safe delivery and safe preparation of the food for the consumers. Many diseases are transmitted by food which serves as a growth medium for bacteria and cause food poisoning. In the developed countries it has been observed that there are many intricate standards for food preparation. However, in the developing countries the availability of adequate safe water itself is a question. It is possible to prevent food poisoning to 100%. An ordinance and code regulation in US (1943)was given.

Fermentation process is known to humans since ancient times. It involves the transformation of raw materials into value added or nutritional products as a result of microbial action or their growth. The fermentation as a science involves aspects of the biological action of microbes, biochemical changes in the substrates and metabolites formed and their effect on food, health and nutritional applications. While fermentation as technology, involves chemical engineering, food engineering and instrumentation aspects and commercialization of the products prepared keeping in view the consumer acceptability. The term fermentation is derived from the Latin word ‘Fervere - to boil’ thus describing the actions of yeasts on extracts of fruits or malted grain. Fermented foods and beverages enhance the pleasure of eating and their nutritional roles include indirect contributions through subjective enhancement of appetite. The instant mixes for fermented or fermentable products such as idli, dosai, dhokla and bhatura mix can reduce the overnight fermenting of the raw materials required for preparation of these products. The instant mixes for idli & dhokla are quite common in the market. However, instant mix for Jalebi and Bhatura are still emerging. Such products add convenience to the consumers and products can be prepared instantly. Certain other fermented foods include dairy products, pickles, sauerkrauts, Kanji, beverages, food supplements and nutraceuticals from fermented biomass.

It has been found that at the household level the health of female members in any family suffers to a large extent. It could be encountered to low health care, poor housing or/and environmental conditions. Due to malnutrition it affects the health to such an extent that it gives rise to many diseases. For a sustainable nutritional status food and various aspects of health needs attention. Looking into that, nutrition is directly related to the health status. For food and nutrition security it is vital to see the availability, accessibility and utilization of food. The World Food Programme (WFP) developed the Vulnerability Analysis and Mapping (VAM) project to analyse the vulnerability to food insecurity of target populations. A prominent part of VAM is related to food access. The demographic and Health Survey (DHS), funded by USAID, provides health data for many countries to help them design their national policy. FAO has developed the Global Information Early Warning System (GIEWS), which collects data related to temporary food insecurity. Under the leadership of WHO, several health surveillance systems have been developed and implemented to monitor the epidemiology of various forms of malnutrition and of selected diseases. At the meso or sub-national level, food market surveys provide data on the availability of food. Agricultural production surveys, intra-household food frequency interviews, immunization surveys and anthropometric surveys of children under five can be used to assess the availability, accessibility and utilization of food and its stability at micro level. Most common Food and Nutrition Security (FNS) indicators at different social and administrative levels depends on the supply and demand. To determine the national situation of food availability data on the production of different food commodities, fertility rate and the trends in internal population needs to be seen. Food prices and per capita food consumption are indicators for national food accessibility. The rates of stunting, wasting and underweight in children, low Body Mass Index (BMI) in adults and low birth weight are FNS impact indicators that designate the extent to which food is adequately being used, utilized and converted into a satisfactory national nutrition situation. Fluctuations and shortages of food availability or accessibility in food prices make the national FNS unstable. Sensitive indicators for accessibility of food are the prices in the market. The sewage disposal and diarrheal diseases (DD) rates affect food utilization.A temporal food and nutrition insecurity arises due to pre and post harvest food availability and accessibility along with low BMI.If the food is in shortage leading to the consumption of more wild foods indicates reduced food availability at household level. Also if the number of meals per day goes down and unemployment increases it indicates low food accessibility.Malnutrition indicators like wasting, goitre or anaemia among the household members show reduced food utilization at micro level. Finally, changes in pre-harvest food consumption practices are good indicators for temporal food insecurity.

22.1 Introduction
Chhana is a dairy product that is produced by coagulating milk with acids such as citric or lactic acid at high temperatures, with the whey subsequently drained. Chhana is the term used to describe the curd that is produced as a consequence. It has a distinctive spongy texture, a mildly acidic flavour, and an off-white colour. Chhana is defined as the product that is produced by precipitating bovine or buffalo milk with sour milk, lactic acid, or citric acid, in accordance with FSSAI standards. The milkfat content must not be less than 50.0 percent on dried matter, and it must not contain more than 70.0 percent moisture. This product may also be prepared using milk solids.

Low fat chhana shall conform to the following requirements
1. The moisture content should not exceed 70.0 percent.
2. The milk fat content should not exceed 15.0 percent of the dry mass.
Additionally, it specifies that such low-fat chhana shall be sold exclusively in sealed packages. Chhana is primarily made from cow’s milk and is utilised in the production of a variety of Bengali sweets. The production of chhana in India consumes roughly 4 to 4.5% of the total milk produced. Sandesh, rasogolla, chamcham, rasomalai, pantoa, and chhana murki are among the numerous desserts that are prepared using chhana as a base.

1.0. Introduction

Any commodity, produce or harvest in organic or inorganic form to be fit to eat by a particular society, and contributes materially towards growth and repair of tissue is known as food. Food processing is application of techniques in a systematic manner for preventing losses through preservation, processing, packaging, storage and distribution to ensure greater availability of a wide variety of foods. It is a set of methods and techniques used to transform raw ingredients into food for consumption by humans or animals.

The early stages of food processing were largely confined to primary processing of food crops, commodities and produce whereby all these rendered fit for consumption or sale in the markets. Processing of rice and oil seeds were the necessities of that time for living. Later on, World War II gave a fillip to some of other food processing industries to meet the demand of the defence forces of the country. Fruits and vegetables processing; wheat and sugar milling drew support and sustenance from the exigencies created by war. Post war situation almost merged into the post-independence scenario. However, food processing industry received its first major impulse after independence. During this time, all the primary food processing industries received top most priority and all necessary support from the Governments in the country.

10.0. Introduction

Food processing is an important sector in agriculture, the scope of which has increased manifold that can help to prevent wastage of perishable commodities to a great extent. But, at the same time, food processing industries generate a large quantity and variety of food products, provide employment to a large number of people and uplift their economic status. The production, processing and preparation of food, all results in generation of huge quantity of waste material causing health hazards due to environmental pollution. The waste material may be in the form of leaf/ straw, waste during harvesting, food preparation waste, after processing waste, unused material as waste, food processing operation waste etc. The huge wastage of the food material is due to lack of control on such agri-economy practices. So, the disposal of waste material has become a challenge to the processors, as different agencies are pressurizing for an environment friendly treatment of waste material. The utilization of waste for the production of value added products is very important in the management of food processing waste. Different types of food industries wastes are: i) fermentation industry waste, ii) fruit and vegetable industry waste (Table 10.1) iii) Sugar and starch industry waste, iv) diary industry waste, v) meat processing industry waste, vi) coffee industry waste and vii) palm oil industry waste, viii) fish processing industry waste. So, there is great need to find out options which have positive values of food waste. The options having positive values are: i) minimization of the waste generation, ii) development of value added products. Most of fruit and vegetable wastes are a rich source of vital constituents like carbohydrates, proteins, fats, minerals, fibres etc. Mango seed kernel is rich in carbohydrates, fats, proteins, minerals; orange, melon and pumpkin seeds can provide fats and mineral matters. Apricot kernels are rich source of oil (45%) and proteins.

11.0. Introduction

Agricultural marketing is one of the important branches of agricultural economics. Farmers have one commodity or the other in surplus and need to be disposed off or sold to earn some money to satisfy other needs, which otherwise cannot be satisfied on the farm or in the village. Thus, agricultural marketing has two-fold objective i.e. Sale of surplus commodities and buy other commodities to satisfy family needs. In modern commercial agriculture, the surpluses with farmers are steadily rising, so also their family needs are changing with the change in lifestyle. Therefore, agricultural marketing has assumed important place. Traditionally, market is place or building where buying or selling of goods takes place. But, in modern times with fast and long distance communication facilities like telephone, market is no more restricted to a particular place only, but it has become wider and has assumed regional, national or even international status. Buying and selling is finalized on telephones only from distant places. Thus, the concept of market has radically changed.

So, marketing of food/ processed food is an important and vital constituent of modern business management. Knowledge about market is critical for the success of the product in such a highly competitive global market place. Now a day, in such modern time, marketing is itself a highly specialized and distinctive discipline. Based on marketing rules and laws, marketing is sometimes regarded as marketing science. Modern marketing strategies, tools and techniques have attained such complexity that marketing is linked with those of the modern warfare. The results of the marketing wars are witness by Cola wars and other brand bars being fiercely fought in the global market. So, the markets have become virtual battlefield for the brand wars. Markets and technologies are the two powerful forces driving the food processing industry. Further packaging has become a powerful tool in the promotion and marketing of the processed food products.

12.0. Introduction

The benefits of food laws to the consumers and the processing industries depend upon the efficacy with which the laws are implemented. The implementation of laws requires not only a well organized national infrastructure for inspection and quality control, but also requires reliable methods of analysis, that can be used to check the quality standards for improvement of the food product w.r.t. nutrition, safety and sensory attributes. Early and accurate analysis of food product prior to preservation, during preservation or post preservation is a crucial component for quality evaluation and their quality control. Quality control in food industries depends upon three principles viz. i) raw material control, ii) process control and iii) finished product inspection. Once a product has gone through the manufacturing process, little can be done to alter its quality or to overcome the faults. Examination of the finished product at the most represents analysis with respect to standards – to accept or reject. Effective control over the raw material and process minimizes the rejection of the products. The food spoilage can be managed most effectively, if control measures are introduced at an early stage of food preparation/contamination. Reliance on symptom is often not adequate because spoilage may occur before symptom appears. The spoilage of the food may affect sensory, physical, chemical or microbiological attributes. Therefore, now a day, food processors want to analyze their food samples quickly without any delay in shipment for which they have to depend on the different methods for their quality evaluation. The analysis and quality control of food products involve physical, chemical, microbiological and sensory methods. So, widely used standard procedures / methods for evaluation of quality of food prior to preservation, during preservation or post preservation has been given in this chapter for easy implementation.

2.0. Introduction

Before dealing with the various processes involved in the processing of fruit and vegetables or any food commodity on commercial scale, it is necessary to consider certain important factors such as investment, site, building, water supply, staff, labour etc. which are essential for the successful running of the food processing plant. Processing plant is the premises, buildings, structure and equipment used in the preparation, processing, handling, transportation and storage of any food commodity / fruits and vegetables / the processed products. The design and layout of the food processing plant is of great importance, besides other important factors. The food processing plant may be single storeyed or multi-storeyed depending upon capacity of production and viability of the plant e.g. if the production of the plant is assumed to be small and processing plant have to run only for short duration during the year then single storeyed processing plant can serve the purpose. Plant layout, product layout and process layout are the most important components for setting up of food processing industry and can determine the working efficiency of unit. Sanitary requirements in food processing plant are also important for marketing of the prepared product in national and international market. Sanitary requirement is as important in food processing plant as is the treatment of the effluent waste. For setting up of the food processing plant certain guidelines have been laid out by FPO, 1955.