eChapters

Introduction

The landscape of the Indian food industry has undergone a dramatic transformation in recent years. Rising disposable incomes, coupled with the rapid pace of urbanization, have fuelled a surge in demand for convenient and processed food options. Consumers, increasingly pressed for time, are turning towards ready-to-eat meals, packaged snacks, and a wider variety of processed food products. While this trend signifies a growing economy and changing lifestyles, it has also brought to light a critical concern: ensuring food safety and empowering consumers with clear and accessible information. In order to empower consumers to make educated food choices and build trust between brands and consumers, food label transparency is crucial. Transparent labelling is essential for improving public health because it gives precise and unambiguous information about ingredients, nutritional value, and possible allergies. This information helps prevent diseases linked to a certain lifestyle, such diabetes, heart disease, and obesity. Additionally, it guarantees that customers are not misled about the quality or provenance of their food, shielding them from dishonest business tactics. Transparency also promotes market justice by levelling the playing field, making product integrity apparent, and fostering creativity and brand loyalty. Transparent labelling promotes ethical and sustainable consumption while also facilitating international trade by adhering to regulatory norms in many countries.

Recognizing this need for a more transparent and consumer-centric food ecosystem, the Food Safety and Standards Authority of India (FSSAI) introduced the FSS Labelling and Display (L & D) Regulations in 2020 under the Food Safety and Standards Act, 2006 (FSS Act). This landmark legislation marked a significant shift in the way food is labelled and marketed in India. By establishing stricter regulations and mandating the inclusion of comprehensive information on food packaging, the FSSAI aimed to empower consumers to make informed choices while also promoting fair competition within the food industry. This comprehensive review delves into the intricacies of the FSS Labelling and Display Regulations 2020. It explores the key provisions of the regulations, analyzes their impact on various stakeholders, and examines the challenges and opportunities associated with their implementation. By providing an in-depth analysis, this chapter aims to shed light on the significance of these regulations in shaping a more responsible and transparent food industry landscape in India.

Introduction

Food packaging materials development has been driven by the need to protect food products throughout distribution and storage. Nanotechnology offers opportunities to improve technical packaging features and develop sustainable smart packaging and sensors for monitoring product quality over time. However, the inherent permeability of conventional packaging materials to atmospheric gases and water vapour poses challenges in maintaining optimal conditions for food. The integration of nanotechnology into food packaging has emerged as a promising solution to address these challenges. Nanocomposite materials, composed of a polymer matrix and nanoscale fillers, offer a novel approach to enhancing packaging performance while addressing issues related to food spoilage, degradation, and safety.

Nanocomposite materials encompass a range of nanomaterials, including inorganic (i.e., metals and metal oxides), nanoclay, organic nanomaterials, and nanoemulsions (Huang et al., 2018; Jamaleddin et al., 2019; P. Kumar et al., 2020). NMs are used for three types of packaging: improved packaging, active packaging and intelligent packaging, Nanotechnology facilitates the development of improved bio-based packaging, enhancing mechanical strength and barrier performance while maintaining stability under varying environmental conditions (S. Kumar et al., 2020; Zhang et al., 2020). Active packaging harnesses nanostructures to encapsulate bioactive compounds, encompassing antimicrobials, antioxidants, and oxygen scavengers, which can interact with food and extend its shelf life (Motelica et al., 2020). Intelligent packaging releases active compounds in response to environmental triggers such as temperature or pH changes, transforming packaging into an intelligent, actively responsive material (Jamróz et al., 2019).

Introduction

A biopolymer is defined as a polymeric substance obtained from any living organism (plant or animal) [1]. These polymers are organic compounds where simpler molecules are covalently bonded with each other [2]. Although biopolymers are strictly synthesized naturally by living cells but some of them are also synthesized from non-biomaterial as well. Natural biopolymers are of different types based on their chemical nature like carbohydrate based, protein based or lipid based. Biopolymers can be broken down by the action of naturally-occurring organisms which leaves organic non-harming by-products like water and carbon dioxide in the environment[3].

Bio polymers are gaining importance in the field of food packaging, medical application, commodity packaging etc. because of their have specific physical, chemical, biological, biomechanical and degradation properties. Wide ranges of natural or synthetic biopolymers capable of undergoing degradation hydrolytically or enzymatically are being investigated for many applications[1]. Bio polymers are mainly based on two properties: a) Biological origin b) Biodegradability.

Earlier natural biopolymers such as cellulose, protein, starch have been used extensively for food applications. Recently, synthetic biopolymers such as polylactic acid (PLA), polycaprolactone (PCL), polyglycolic acid (PGA), polyvinyl alcohol (PVOH), and polybutylene succinate (PBS) are gaining more attention[4] for various applications. Natural biopolymers are more stereospecific and mostly hydrophilic having complex 3D structures as compared to the synthetic polymers[2]. Among the synthetic biopolymers some are microbiologically degradable in the environment whereas some are recyclable[1].

Introduction

The purpose of this e-book is to outline the main hazards in food production and processing that could influence the safety of foods and thus the health and wellbeing of consumers. The suggestive actions to restrain the formation of compounds or organisms that may threaten the safety of a food will be discussed along with the legal and regulatory framework.

“Safe Food Now for a Healthy Tomorrow”

Food is the third most basic human need, after air and water. Only when food is safe can it contribute to our food security and health. When food is not safe, people cannot thrive, hunger and poverty cannot be alleviated, and a healthy life is not possible. Food safety has a significant impact on human health, and food, which is essential for human survival, comes from plants and animals. Food safety is a core tenet of One Health.

This chapter gives an overview of the main hazards such as physical hazards, chemical hazards, biological hazards, and adulterants in different types of foods and how the hazards influence the safety of the food along with health and well-being of the consumers. The effective way of management of these hazards and different hazard limits set by the regulators such as FSSAI, USFDA, EU AND CODEX along with labelling requirements for the hazards has been discussed in this chapter.

Introduction

Packaging is an integral and pervasive part of contemporary world. Packaging makes material handling convenient, economical and effortless and modern consumer marketing will seem virtually impossible without packaging. For an engineer or food scientist, packaging is specialized arrangement of matrices fabricated for the delivery of safe food products with maintaining high quality and food safety, at every step of distribution chain including procurement of raw material to manufacturing of finished product; packaging of product; storage; transportation and distribution to wholesaler, retailer and consumer and even for recycling operations [17].

Packaging of food is imperative in a world dominated by marketing-based economy The fact that 73% of purchase decisions are made at point of sale highlighted the importance of a good package design in marketing. During scanning of food package, consumer made quick and rapid perception about the inclusion of a particular food based on the various verbal and nonverbal attributes embodied on food package [25]. Designing is an indispensable are of food packaging. It is medium to attract potential buyers and distinguished the product from the competitors. The presence of visual attributes on package design will not only ameliorates the food product and glamorizes the packets but also defines its authenticity and peculiarity. Therefore, a quality package design is characterized as communication channel between the manufacture and consumer, and unless performed correctly the market image of the brand and product suffers and influence consumer’s perception.

Food Contact Materials (FCM)

Before food consumption, during production, processing, preparation, packaging, packing, transportation, storage, serving etc. food comes in contact o many materials, all these materials are called food contact materials (FCM). FCM may be containers used for transportation for example milk container, machineries for its production or processing, packaging materials for its packaging like cans of soft drinks, kitchenware used for its cooking, serving, heating, washing. The selection of FCM requires intense care because FCM can affect human health and also the quality of food. During contact with food, molecules can migrate from FCM to food. Hence, FCM should have the following common attributes:

1. FCM should be compatible with the materials used for production, processing, transport, storage, serving etc.

2. FCM should be inert and non-reactive.

3. FCM should withstand the chemical, Mechanical and Thermal variations.

4. FCM should be clean, hygienic and tamper proof.

5. FCM should not have blisters, cracks, sharp edges and visible defects. 6. FCM should be free from rust.

Introduction

Packaging of food material is an essential component of food industry since packaging provides protection, physical tampering resistance and unique appearance to the food products which attracts the customers (Robertson, 2006). The handling of food products would be inefficient and costly if they are not packed properly (Robertson, 2006). The style and design of packaging influence their sale as well as demand. The main aim of packaging is to corroborate the safety and quality of food by preventing microbial contamination (Lee K.M, 2010). Plastics, papers, glass and metals are the common materials used for packaging of food products (Arvanitoyannis and Bosnea, 2004). Among these plastics are most commonly used packaging material because of their low cost, light weight, design freedom and high durability (British Plastic Federation). Various additives are added to the plastics to achieve desired physical and chemical properties. These additives are stabilizers, plasticisers, lubricants and f lame retardants. These additives have potential to transfer from the packaging materials to the food stuffs(K Bunia et al., 2013).

The efficient food packaging solutions are the need of the hour for the Earth. The food losses including the production, post harvest, processing stages of the supply chain and food wastage includes loss of edible food occurring at the f inal stages of food chain that is during retail supply or ultimate consumption. The food born illnesses cannot be ignored which are a consequence of the contamination of food by bacteria, viruses, parasites, new chemical entities or toxicants. We need to optimise the food supply chain, increase food shelf life and consciousness amidst food producers to food consumers. The active and intelligent packaging may help the globe through sufficient food for the increasing population. Scavengers/ absorbers are important solutions which may absorb substances from the packaging inner atmosphere (ethylene absorbers, oxygen scavengers; emitters and antioxidants).

Introduction

Food packaging is one of the most dynamic and fast-growing industries in the current scenario of increasing industrialization. With the constant upsurge in the food wastage at different stages of processing (suchas harvest, storage, processing, transportation, and distribution) leads to more than 15% of food produced ending up in the dumping grounds due to food spoilage caused by climatic conditions andmicroorganisms.Ever-increasing demands of consumers for convenient food makes packaging technology a need of the hour in order to keep the food safe, wholesome and of high quality at the same time.

So appropriate packaging has the potential of not only preventing spoilage but also taking care of healthand well-being of the individuals.Therefore, packaging plays the most important role in the overall safety of the food product.This makes packaging as the ever-evolving field since new requirements need new materials which demands new approaches and technology for better quality products.

By definition, Food packaging is a well-organized system of protecting the food product from any kind of physical, chemical, and biological damage in order to ensure that food reaches the consumer in its most safe condition at minimum applicable cost. It is bridge between production and consumption (Paine, 1992).

Pineapple is a tropical plant with edible multiple fruit consisting of coalesced berries. It is named after pine cone due its resemblance with its structure. It is the most economically important plant in the family of Bromeliaceae. It is widely grown throughout the world for its dual-purpose use in the form of fresh fruit and many processed products. It is a tropical fruit having excellent taste, juiciness, aroma and flavour which is preferred by many people. It is also rich source of fibre, potassium and vitamin C, vitamin B1 and vitamin B6. One of the important constituents in the fruit is proteolytic enzyme bromelein which is known to have significant use in treating conditions like inflammation, sinusitis, arthritis and early recovery from surgery (Joy, 2010). Bromelein is a digestive enzyme also used as meat tenderizer. Pineapple is cultivated in an area of 106.22 thousand ha and total production is 1,527.93 thousand tons (APEDA). Major producing states of pineapple were West Bengal, Assam and Karnataka. Pineapple is highly perishable fruit which transpires heavily and lose moisture thus have high susceptibility to spoilage microorganism (Hossain and Bepary, 2015). There are often several difficulties in production of pineapple with its physiologically active state even after harvest and non climacteric nature. Even though production is more, there are enormous post harvest losses for the fruit. The overall losses being encountered constitute 32.12 percent (6.82% at farm level, 3.09% at wholesale market and transportation, 5.44 % at retail market level, 5.64% during storage, 4.31% in processing unit and 6.82% at consumer level respectively) as reported by Ningobam, (2019).

Horticultural sector, which is contributing significantly for food and nutrition security, employment opportunity and poverty alleviation, got a real boost only in the early 1990s which coincided with liberalization of Indian economy. National area and production of horticultural crops are showing increasing trend over the years and production of horticultural crops has outpaced the production of food grain since 2012-13(Press Information Bureau, Govt. of India, Ministry of Finance, 2016). According to Economic Survey 2015-16, the share of horticultural output in agriculture is more than 33% over last decade and the sector contributes 30.4% to GDP of Agricultural sector. Horticulture sector accounts for 37% of total export of agricultural commodities at present and the exports have recorded sustained rising trend (Jha et al., 2019). The export status of APEDA (Agricultural and Processed Food Products Export Development Authority) products in the recent years shows 28.18% growth in value of horticultural products over the previous year. The investment in horticultural sector with focused attention has resulted in spectacular change in the horticultural scenario and production and productivity of horticultural crops.

Pineapple (Ananas comosus) is an edible fruit bearing plant native to South America belonging to family Bromeliaceae. Pineapple is grown over an area of 1.06 million hectares with an annual production of 29.36 million metric tonnes (FAO, 2022). Pineapples are rich in vitamin C, minerals, fiber and low in calories. The enzyme bromelain present in pineapple is of considerable importance to the pharmaceutical and cosmetic industry (Varilla et al., 2021). The market for pineapples has been expanding significantly because of its appealing aroma compounds and nutritional benefits. The climate and distribution of rainfall in tropical and sub-tropical regions make these areas ideal for pineapple cultivation. Worldwide, Brazil is the leading producer of Pineapple followed by Philippines, Thailand, Costa Rica and India (FAO, 2022). In India the leading pineapple producing states are West Bengal, Northeastern region, Bihar, Kerala, Karnataka, Goa, and Maharashtra.This ‘Kew’ of Cayenne group and ‘Mauritius’ of the rough leaf Queen group are the two varieties dominating in India (Devi et al., 2013; Joy and Sindhu, 2012).

Botanically, Pineapple is a herbaceous perennial having short stem and tough waxy leaves. It produces a fleshy, edible, yellow fleshed which is a fusion of 100-200 berry like fruitlets. Most of the members of Bromeliaceae family are epiphytes i.e. grown on rocks and living trees though pineapples grow on the soil bearing sensitive adventitious root that cannot regenerate once damage and intolerant to poor soil aeration. The cultivated varieties of pineapple can be categorized into three groups namely, Cayenne, Queen, and Spanish. The Spanish and Cayenne groups can be cultivated for dual purposes viz. fresh fruit and canning. However, the Queen group are only cultivated for fresh fruit markets due to the presence of deep eyes making it unsuitable for canning (Devi et al., 2013).

Pineapple is an important tropical fruit crop of India introduced by Portuguese from Southern Brazil early in the 16th century. It is a versatile fruit acting as a rich source of nutrients in many favourite recipes. In addition, it is an excellent source of vitamins, minerals, and antioxidants,highlighting its role as anti-inflammatory, digestion, and immunity support.It resembles epiphytes where roots are sensitive to poor soil aeration (Joy and Sindhu, 2012). In the present day, the demand for pineapple is increasing gradually in different parts of the country. However, insect-pests infestation turns out to be one of the major impediments in its quantum of production.

Pineapple is infested by several insect pests like mealy bug, scale insect, thrips, fruit borer, white grubs, bud moths, midges, fruit flies, termites etc. during its entire crop duration. However, Mealy bugs appeared as the key pest of pineapple while otherslike scale insects, thrips and fruit borer could cause economic damage to the crop only under favourable environment. Therefore, emphasis must be given for development of suitableecofriendly management techniques by proper prophylactic (cultural, mechanical, biological etc.) and protective measures to reduce the insect-pest population below the economic damage through proper monitoring and regular survey of the crop field.Thus, this chapter emphasizes on the important insect-pests infesting Pineapple along with their appropriate management options.

Pineapple i.e. Ananas comosus (L.) Mer. belongs to the Bromeliaceae family, which has around 46 genera and 1700 species, mainly cultivated in the tropical and sub- tropical regions. It is ranked third in production of tropical fruit after banana and citrus. The pineapple market has been growing extensively due to the attractive aroma compounds and nutritional values as well as huge demand and competitive retail prices (Ali et al., 2020). But, several sanitary problems have been reported in pineapple and they are considered as the main constraints for low yield of that crop in several producing areas. Significant yield losses have been caused by infestation of different pests like mealy bug, fruit borer, mites, scale insects, as well as with different nematode species (Pires de Matos, 2017). The crop lifecycle phases, soil, climatic variables and crop management practices influence the pest infestation intensity. In order to prevent severe crop losses, an integrated approach comprising prophylactic, biological, cultural, mechanical and need-based chemical steps is most appropriate for controlling pineapple pests and maintaining their population below the threshold level. This chapter deals with globally important pests of pineapple with their nature of damages and effective control measures in depth.

Pineapple, are well adapted crops for the farmers towards water economy due to its morphological, anatomical, and physiological characteristics. However, the plant contains rosette leaf structure can able to channels the light rainfalls and dew through stem and finally into the soil. It also have the ability to absorb water and nutrients through their waxy leaves and aerial roots and can capable to store water in specialized aquiferous leaf tissue; multicellular trichomes that cover the leaves and protect the plant from excessive transpiration by reflecting radiation; a thick cuticle covering the leaf epidermis that restricts water loss by evaporation, location of the stomata in furrows at the lower leaf surface where they also are covered by trichomes, limiting evapotranspiration; and its nocturnal carbon dioxide fixation via the crassulacean acid metabolism (CAM) carbon assimilation pathway, which results in stomatal opening primarily at night when evaporative demand is lowest (Reinhardt et al., 2018). The most common propagating material of pineapple is suckers or slips. Suckers are used to arise from the underground parts of the plant are used for propagation. Slips arise from the fruiting stem and the crown region on top of the fruit.

In this context, it is important to know the nutritional aspects of pineapples which are as attractive as their unique anatomy. “Pineapples contain high amounts of vitamin C and manganese,” said San Diego-based nutritionist Laura Flores. These tropical fruits are also important for the dietary fiber and bromelain (an enzyme). “As well as having high amounts of manganese, which is important for antioxidant defenses, pineapples also contain high amounts of thiamin, A, B vitamin that is involved in energy production,” Flores said. Pineapples are fat-free, cholesterol-free and low in sodium (Arpaia et al., 2004; De Costa, 2010). Side by side they contain sugars of about 14 grams per cup (www.livescience.com, 2019). In continuation with this, the chapter was focused on physiological disorder of pineapple caused by various reasons.

Basically, non-pathological conditions are the reasons of physiological disorders of any kind of crop plants; it includes poor light, adverse weather, water-logging, phytotoxic compounds or a lack of nutrients, which affects the normal functioning of the plant system. Sometimes physiological disorders may be initiated before harvest, continue their development after harvest, or appear after harvest. In was observed several times that physiological disorders are causative agent for the deterioration of horticultural commodities which leads to economic losses. An important commercialized fruit i.e., pineapple is also facing the same problem of different kind of physiological disorders; it includes multiple crowns, fruit and crown fasciation, collar of slips, dry fruit and bottle neck, sun-scald/ sunburn, blackheart etc.

Post-Harvest Losses

A post-harvest loss is defined as the measurable qualitative and quantitative food (including fruits and vegetables) loss along the supply chain, starting at the time of harvest till its consumption or other end uses (Hodges et al., 2011). Pineapple fruits are highly perishable in nature and continuously respired even after harvesting which limited its shelf-life leading to the storage problems (Hossain and Bepary, 2015) and decline in production due to post-harvest losses (Babalola et al., 2008). During the storage for distant marketing, pineapple fruits easily losses its moisture content through transpiration and become more susceptibility to microbial spoilage (Hossain and Bepary, 2015). In India the top five leading pineapple producing states are West Bengal, Assam, Karnataka, Meghalaya and Manipur (Anonymous, 2018). The measurable qualitative and quantitative losses of pineapple at post-harvest level are from the various stages of handling from the farm level up to the consumers (Table 1 and 2).

The history of plant growth regulation was knownfor many years before the time of Christ, when it was common practice in the Middle East to place a drop of olive oil on figs to promote development. The use of plant growth regulators (PGRs) to modify growth and flowering of pineapple began in 1930s. In eighteenth century when a carpenter was working in a greenhouse in the Azores Islandaccidently set fire to a pile of shavings. To the surprise of the grower who had thought his plants were ruined, they burst into flower instead of being damaged (Collins, 1960). In Hawaii, Rodriguez (1932) noticed in the pineapple fields that smoke from brush fires adjacent to the field caused premature flowering. The ingredients of smoke were subsequently found to be ethylene and acetylene, the unsaturated hydrocarbons. During the 1940’s, auxins were also shown to produce this effect,α-Naphthalene acetic acid (NAA), β-Naphthalene acetic acid (BNA), Fruitone and naphthaleneacetamide were the next forcing agent to become commercially used in pineapple. Since that time many works have been carried out with improving results like natural and synthetic compounds that alter function, shape and size of crop plants have been discovered. Today, specific PGRs are used to modify crop growth rate and growth pattern during the various stages of development from germination through harvest and post-harvest preservation. The use of regulating chemicals has become an important component of agro-technical procedures for most of the cultivated plants and especially for fruit plants.

Pineapple is one of the most economically important fruits in tropical and subtropical regions and gaining popularity to the consumers all over the world. The pineapple plant has many specific morphological, anatomical and physiological characteristics that determine crucial aspects of pineapple crop management, such as water use efficiency, nutrient management, weed management, flower induction etc.

Water Requirements and Irrigation

Determination of water requirements and plant moisture status: Pineapple plant responds well to as much as 5 cm of water per month from rain or irrigation though it is a xerophyte type and is capable of good production under relatively meager water supply. Maintenance of available soil moisture in the root zone areas requires less water for pineapple than for other crops due to lower transpiration rates. Plants achieve this type of adaptability through a process called assuberization, where suberin act as a physical barrier, preventing water loss from the tissues it surrounds.Stomata remains closed as an effect of drought during the entire day. But, whenever the plants are grown with sufficient moisture in well-aerated soils produced well-distributed roots with numerous white root tips. It helps the water use efficiency and carbon f ixation that pineapple shows to drip irrigation. The pineapple leaf is a major water storage organ for the pineapple plant (Malézieux et al., 1993). When the leaves are full of water the cells present in upper mesophyll layer can occupy almost half of its volume. Invery little water-supply, the water in the mesophyll layer is absorbed by the plant. Generally, representative ‘D’-leaves are taken in a group of six to ten leaves and the total thickness is measured and compared with the thickness of fully turgid leaves.

Organic products are grown under a system of agriculture without the use of chemical fertilizers and pesticides with an environmentally and socially responsible approach. This is a method of farming that works at grass root level preserving the reproductive and regenerative capacity of the soil, good plant nutrition, and sound soil management, produces nutritious food rich in vitality which has resistance to diseases. India is bestowed with lot of potential to produce all varieties of organic products due to its various agro climatic conditions. In several parts of the country, the inherited tradition of organic farming is an added advantage. This holds promise for the organic producers to tap the market which is growing steadily in the domestic and export sector.

As per the available statistics, India’s rank 8th in terms of World’s Organic Agricultural land and 1st in terms of total number of producers as per 2020 data (Source: FIBL & IFOAM Year Book, 2020). The APEDA, Ministry of Commerce & Industries, Government of India is implementing the National Programme for Organic Production (NPOP). The programme involves the accreditation of Certification Bodies, standards for organic production, promotion of organic farming and marketing etc. The NPOP standards for production and accreditation system have been recognized by European Commission and Switzerland for unprocessed plant products as equivalent to their country standards. Similarly, USDA has recognized NPOP conformity assessment procedures of accreditation as equivalent to that of NOP of US. With these recognitions, Indian organic products duly certified by the accredited certification bodies of India are accepted by the importing countries. APEDA is also in the process of bilateral equivalence with South Korea, Taiwan, Canada, Japan etc.

Pineapple is considered as one of the important tropical fruits which are extremely demanded in the international market. This is due to its various quality characteristics like sweeter taste, blemish-free flesh, a cylinder shape with golden yellow pulp, a very pleasant aroma when ripe, low acidity, and a longer shelf life compared to other varieties (Banful et al., 2011; Malezieux et al., 2003). Pineapple can grow well in low as well as high fertile soil but the best production is obtained with high fertile soils. Souza et al. (2007) found that a fruit’s weight is directly correlated with the plant vigour at the time of f loral differentiation with a minimum D-leaf length. Therefore, it is proved by Souza et al. (2007) that nutrients play animportant role in pineapple cultivation to increase the growth and yield of the crop. It is also noted that the pineapple plants have a large nutrient uptake demand, especially for potassium, followed by nitrogen, calcium, magnesium, sulphur, and phosphorus.

The focus on pineapple production should not only aim for stable volumes but also sustainable growth while maintaining quality standards amidst a growing population. The ‘Green Revolution’ with high inputs has plateaued, emphasizing the need for a natural balance to sustain life and property. Effective plant nutrient management is crucial for environmental, economic, and social reasons. Pineapple’s nutrient requirements, high in nitrogen (N), potassium (K), and iron (Fe), with lower needs for phosphorus (P) and calcium (Ca), make soil organic matter desirable. Repeated cultivation exhausts soil nutrient reserves, leading to decreased yields. Heavy synthetic fertilizer use may cause soil impaction and acidification. Combining organic manure with chemical fertilizers is recommended for profitable and sustainable crop production while preserving soil fertility. However, excessive nitrogen application poses health risks. As farmers transition to organic farming, the negative impact of inorganic fertilizers on pineapple size, yield, and quality is evident.

Pineapples are commonly propagated through vegetative means, as the crop sets very few or no seeds and seeds possess slow germination process and low survival rate of seedlings under natural conditions. Vegetative parts such as stem suckers, peduncle slips, and fruit crowns are commonly utilized for vegetative multiplication of pineapple.

Selection of planting materials: Slips or hapa suckers are commonly preferred for commercial multiplication because they may produce fruit within 14-16 months after planting. Crowns are not commonly used as they may take up to 24 months after planting to harvest. Ground suckers (ratoon) and side suckers (side shoots) produce fruit 12-14 months and 18-20 months after flowering, respectively.(Pineapple Technical Group, 1999).

The fresh suckers should not be used for planting. Pineapple suckers should be stored for a few months to allow them to dry before planting, as they may begin to decay if planted in moist soil. Suckers are graded according to vigour and size, such as small, medium, and large. Planting the same graded suckers in the same plot helps to avoid uneven growth of the plant, uneven flowering times, and harvesting times. Additionally, using uniform planting material makes cultural practices easier, increases labour efficiency and other inputs, ultimately reducing the cost of cultivation.

Chadha et al. (1974) observed the superiority of slips and suckers as planting materials compared to crowns. In both slips and suckers, larger planting materials resulted in more vigorous plants. Medium-sized slips or suckers led to more flowering, while larger grade material resulted in a more staggered f lowering period. Smaller slips or suckers yielded fruit earlier. Slips produced better quality fruits, and the yields were comparable to the highest yield obtained with the largest suckers.