eChapters

1. Key Forces Shaping Food Packaging • Changing Consumer Priorities • Modern consumers are increasingly choosing food packaging that aligns with values of health, convenience, and sustainability. The demand is growing for packaging options that are recyclable, biodegradable, or reusable. Consumers also expect transparency, with clean labels and QR codes providing details on ingredients and sourcing, which has become essential for building trust (Santeramo et al.,2022) • Environmental Sustainability • Sustainability remains a powerful influence on packaging innovation. Reducing single-use plastics, increasing recyclable options, and adopting circular economy principles are all priorities. Both consumers and businesses are actively seeking solutions that reduce environmental impact, such as renewable, compostable materials and designs that minimize waste ( Fao et al ., 2022)

Abstract

Egg is a nutrient dense food, containing high quality proteins and a wide range of vitamins, minerals, trace elements, PUFA, MUFA etc. Whole egg slices were prepared by boiling in water technique for a predetermined time i.e. 15 min. The egg slices were prepared with spice extract at different levels of 2%, 5%, 7% and 10%, out of which 5% was found acceptable by sensory evaluation. The egg slices with 5% spice extract were then subjected to frying in different oils such as mustard oil, rice bran oil, sunflower oil and soya bean oil. Among all of the fried egg slices and control (without any spice extract and frying), on sensory evaluation, fried egg slices with mustard oil was most preferred. Texture analysis results shows that hardness was increased on frying and highest in fried egg slices with rice bran oil. Also the values for other TPA component viz. adhesiveness, cohesiveness, gumminess and chewiness were increased on frying as compared with control. Among the fried egg slices, highest values for adhesiveness, cohesiveness, gumminess was observed in egg slices with rice bran oil. However, chewiness of fried egg slices with sunflower oil was highest. It can be concluded from present study that the egg slices fried in mustard oil was organoleptically acceptable with good textural properties.

Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Point (HACCP) System

1. Identify hazards
 
 It is important to be able to identify the possible microbiological, chemical and physical hazards that can occur at every stage of the food business – from growth, processing, manufacture, storage and distribution, until the point where it is sold to the customer and eaten.

    ·    Microbiological Hazards : Any bacterium, virus, or protozoan that is capable of causing illness and that grows or may be carried on food. Well-known examples of bacteria are Campylobacter, Listeria and Salmonella. The most likely food-borne viruses are the Norwalk type viruses. Giardia is an example of a protozoan that may be food borne. It is important to have some understanding of the risks associated with different types of microbiological hazards.

    ·    Chemical Hazards : Examples include excessive or toxic amounts of heavy metals, chemicals, pesticides, herbicides, insecticides, vitamins, minerals, preservatives, disinfectants, detergents and cleaning compounds. Some hazards may be naturally present such as in green potatoes or taro and rhubarb leaves.

    ·    Physical Hazards : Objects that get into food, or are already present in food, may cause illness, injury or distress to the person eating it. Some examples are glass, metal fragments etc. Other contaminants such as hair or insects may be offensive but not necessarily a danger to health. They should nonetheless be considered and controlled

1. Food Labelling

Food labelling is the primary means of communication between the producer and seller of food on one hand, and the purchaser and consumer on the other.

Basic Terminology in Food labelling

‘‘Food” means any substance, whether processed, semi-processed or raw, which is intended for human consumption, and includes drinks, chewing gum and any substance which has been used in the manufacture, preparation or treatment of “food” but does not include cosmetics or tobacco or substances used only as drugs.

‘‘Ingredient” means any substance, including a food additive, used in the manufacture or preparation of a food and present in the final product although possibly in a modified form.

Abstract

Nanotechnology deals with understanding and control of matter at 1-100 nm dimensions. Nano-sized materials have been part of everyday life in the form of biological entities and processes. Many of the structural building elements in foods are colloids in nature and are built up as a result of self assembly of nano-sized molecules in particles or at interfaces. The most important food raw materials-proteins, starches and fats undergo structural changes at the nanometer and micrometer scales during normal food processing. Unique phenomena occurring at this length scale are being exploited for novel food applications. Functional foods are products, in food or drink form, which influence specific functions in the body and thereby offer benefits for health, well-being, or performance beyond their regular nutritional value. Nanotechnology promises to provide means of altering and manipulating food products to efficiently deliver nutrients like proteins and antioxidants for precisely targeted nutritional and health benefits. Nanotechnology applications for functional food ingredients and additives offer range of benefits to the consumer in terms of innovative, tasteful and healthy food products. Nanoencapsulation systems aid smart protection and delivery of bioactives so as to ensure their stability, taste, colour, safety and bioavailability. The advent of nanotechnology has opened up innovations in food packaging with improved stability and barrier properties. However, need exists to develop regulatory systems for managing any risks associated with functional nanofoods and the use of nanotechnologies in the food industry.

Considered as one of the leading members of the family Bromeliaceae, pineapple is one of the most extensively consumed fruits in the world. Fruit juices, extracts, concentrates and processed edibles are consumed worldwide. Besides, plant fibres, enzymes obtained from the stems and leaves find many applications across industries. Pineapple residue mainly consists of pulp, stem, leaves and peels and the huge wastes produced as a result of improper handling, harsh environmental conditions, decaying and deterioration. Thesecan be successfully processed and extracted for further inexpensive and sustainable utilization instead of discarding. Agro-based and chemical industries have been switching to using plant-based substrates from various resources. Above all, all the natural substrates obtained are highly renewable, won’t contribute to the global waste production, require less expenditures in processing, less toxic and has considerably better biochemical properties than the synthetic alternatives.

Industrial Importance of Pineapple

Pineapple Leaf Fibre (PALF)

Back in the days, pineapple leaf fibre was considered to be an agricultural residue until it’s potential capabilities as an organic fibre and its commercial prominence heaved into view as a consequence of pioneering researches (Uddin et al.2017). According to Technical Association of Pulp and Paper Industry (TAPPI) standards, many chemical constituents like holocellulose, α-cellulose, lignin, and ash content of PALF were analyzed from a different source of f ibres, with varying environmental conditions, cost, etc. (TAPPI,1991). Mainly because of its highest tensile strength (413 to 1627 MNm−2), high cellulose content, as compared to other organic fibres with its Young’s modulus varying from 34.5 to 82.51 GNm−2. Furthermore, it has also been ascertained that upon its conversion to yarn, a 13% rise in its strength is observed and a bundle of saturated PALF adheres a reduced strength by 50% (Asim et al., 2015). Various researches and aided projects of SITRA (South India Textile Research) under UNDP/UNIDO have demonstrated the production of 100% PALF yarn by blending with other synthetic or natural fibres like cotton or silk. The threads, thus produced, are used to make fabrics, fancy carpets, mops, curtains, etc. where pineapple-jute blended yarns are used by the textile and fabric industries (Mishra et al., 2004; Debnath, 2016). It is also used in furnishings, decorations, sports items, baggage, quilts due to its aesthetic and elegant fabric (Anon, 1992).

INTRODUCTION

EGGS : Eggs and egg products constitute an important part of family meals. The economic importance of the egg to agriculture and industry, its multiple uses in the preparation of many food products, and its excellent nutritive value have stimulated scientific scrutiny into the nature of the egg.

STRUCTURE : The chief parts of the egg are the yolk, the albumin (the white), and the shell and the shell membranes. The yolk is more complex structurally than may be thought at first glance. At the very center is a light coloured structure called the white yolk. The vitelline membrane serves as the enclosure or sac for the yolk. The strength of this membrane is important when yolks and whites needs to be separated in cookery. Two important rather twisted membraneous structures extend from opposite sides of the yolk into the white.

1. Introduction

Biopolymers nowadays are grabbing a nice place in packaging industries replacing synthetic polymers. The most important advantage of biopolymer over synthetic polymers is that they are biodegradable and can be developed from agricultural or food processing wastes. Among the wide variety of materials currently used in food packaging, polymers have taken a major share because of their versatility and advantageous performance (Valdés et al., 2014). However, most polymers used for food packaging are not biodegradable or compostable and therefore represent an increasingly serious end-of-life disposal problem worldwide. Although food package stability during the shelf-life of the product is an advantage, it turns into a disadvantage when the packages enter the post-use phase.

Abstract

The concern of consumers for convenience and healthy foods involves many parameters like functional and nutraceutical properties, ease to prepare, good quality, economics as well as good nutritional profile of the food. This trend of convenience has been increasing in today's world because of the societal changes like the aging of population, the increasing entry of women into the labor force, the change to a multi-cultured society and the increasing polarization between poor and rich. Value addition to the traditional sources is a medium to bring variety products into the market. Cereal starches possess a wide application in the food industry as an additive but the native starch is not widely used in food industry due to its poor functional properties. Pregelatinized starches and flours have become important in processed foods because the functional properties of the starches and flours are improved over the native starches and cereal flours. Modification is a process which alters the structure of the starch in the wheat endosperm by affecting the hydrogen bonds in a controllable manner. Modification of starch and flours is generally done by several methods such as chemical degradation, physical alteration or enzymatic transformation. The primary objective of modification is to reduce the hot viscosity of the starch paste so that higher concentrations of starch can be dispersed without excessive thickening. The pregelatinized flours offer a tremendous number of functional benefits to variety of foods such as bakeries, snacks, beverages as well as nutritional foods. The various functional benefits of pre-gelatinized starch/flour as an additive are classified as fat replacer, texture improver, stabilizer, emulsifier, thickening agent and for freeze-thaw stability. Keywords: Pregelatinization, modification, functionality, cereal flour.

Abstract

The aim of this work was to reduce the natural fermentation period of ‘idli’ from the conventional 14 hr to10 hr by adding underutilized okara for the preparation of ‘idli’. Black gram was partially substituted with soy residue okara in the ratio of (1:1). After 14 hr of natural fermentation, the pH and total acidity of control ‘idli’ batter was 4.55 and 0.68% and that of okara fortified ‘idli’ batter was 4.57 and 0.56%, respectively. The amount of CO₂ released by the control and okara fortified batter was 12.5% and 22.5% respectively. The viable count of yeast and mold, lactics and mesophilic bacteria in control and okara batter increased with time reaching 8.4 and 9.6, 8.2 and 7.5, and 8.6 and 9.2 log10 cfu/g, respectively at the end of 10 hr of natural fermentation. Okara fortified ‘idli’ was soft and spongy compared to control ‘idli’.

Abstract

Rice is the most produced and consumed source of stable food in J andK, and is excellent in genetic diversity. Rice production is the principal activity and a major source of income for the State. Traditional rice varieties have an enhancing potential in wide range of nutraceutical and functional foods. Besides possessing medicinal and nutritional properties, the by-products generated from these rice varieties in various post harvest operations are equally valuable. Traditional healers and local farmers have been using these traditional varieties in ayurveda and in curing of various kinds of ailments, such as cooling the body in ayurvedic treatments, improving vocal clarity, curing of boils, swellings and skin blemishes. Extracts of brown rice are also used as energy drink in individuals, patients and in treatment of chronic gastric problems, jaundice, dysenteric complaints and to increase lactation and nutrition to Childs. Sticky glutinous rice has been reported in treatment of stomach upsets, nausea, heart-burn and indigestion. Brown rice extracts have been reported in treatments of breast and stomach cancer and warts.

1. Introduction

Citrus is a common term and genus (Citrus) of flowering plants in the Rue family, Rutaceae. Citrus fruits are non-climacteric and respiration slowly declines and the production and release of ethylene is gradual. India ranks sixth in the production of citrus fruits in the world. Citrus wastes typically are about 45- 50% of the weight of citrus original and the percentage of waste to 30-50% for vegetables and fruits in general. Natural colour plays a significant role in determining the degree of consumer acceptance of the product. In addition, carotenoids (vitamin A precursor) have high nutritional values which are important for human nutrition.Francis and Isaksen (1988) stated that carotenoids play a very important role for extraction as for protection of health against cancer, cardiovascular and eye disease and as anti-oxidant. Carotenoids play important roles in human nutrition through their provitamin A activity, but also by acting as antioxidants, for prevention of age-related macular degeneration or skin protection against UV radiation. The antioxidant capacity of carotenoids was proved for pure compounds as well as for plant extracts and food. The main objective of this research work is extraction, determination and identification of natural colorants from different citrus wastes (citrus peel). Also to study the effects of pH and oxygen on the stability of extracted pigments and determination of the specific carriers for the extracted pigments using solid matrices (starch, dextrin, arabic gum and flour).

1. Introduction

Milk is considered to be an adequate source of valuable macro nutrients, fat, protein, lactose. Vitamins and micronutrients making it a wholesome food. It can serve as an excellent carrier product for extra nutrient and if enriched or fortified it can satisfy the nutritional needs of the population. Soybean is an excellent source of low cost protein and has been an important nutritional component and medical investigation have revealed the great potential of soy foods for lowering blood cholesterol levels and the incidence of heart disease and cancer. The dry soybean contains roughly 40 % protein, 20% oil and 35% soluble (sucrose , raffinose, stachyose, etc. ). Aqueous extract of soya is an ideal substitute of animal milk for people suffering from allergic, gastrointestinal and other diseases peculiar to elderly people liu et al. (2004). Soymilk obtained by aqueous extraction from whole soybeans is a well known food product that is growing in popularity in many areas of the world (Hauman,1984). Soy milk is low in fat, carbohydrate, calcium, phosphorus, and riboflavin, but high in iron, thiamin, and niacin in comparison with cows’ milk. Soy milk contains higher amount of protein than buffalo milk and is deficient in sulfur containing amino acids. Soya milk is used in various products like paneer, yoghurts , cheese, tea and coffee whiteners , shrikhand, rasogolla and various indigenous milk sweets, confectionary, etc (Kale et al., 2012, Chang et al., 2005) also reported that intake of fermented soymilk improves the ecosystem intestinal tract by increasing the amount of probiotics. During the last years, soy beverages consumption has gradually increased due to their significant concentration of health promoting compounds, such as iso flavones.

1. Introduction

Jackfruit (Artocarpus heterophyllus Lam. ) a member of the family Moraceae is the largest tree-borne fruit in the world. India is the second biggest producer of the fruit in the world and is considered as the motherland of jackfruit. The jackfruit is native to parts of South and Southeast Asia and is believed to have originated in the rainforests of Western Ghats of India and is cultivated throughout the low lands in South and Southeast Asia. Major jackfruit producing countries are Bangladesh, India, Myanmar, Nepal, Thailand, Vietnam, China, the Philippines, Indonesia, Malaysia and Sri Lanka. There are 100-500 seeds in a single fruit (Sidhu, 2012). It is composed of rind, edible bulbs of yellow-flesh and seeds. The ripe fruits are eaten or processed into snacks and canned products. Seeds make up around 10 to 15% of the total fruit weight (30-365/ fruit) and have high carbohydrate and protein contents (Ocloo et al., 2010). Mostly the seeds, rind and strands are discarded as waste. So, the seed, rind and strand flour can be an alternative intermediatory product, which can be stored and utilized, both for value addition and to blend with other grain flours without affecting the functional and sensory profile of the final product.

1. Introduction

Banana is having number of species and belongs to genus Musa of the family Musaceae. Bananas are produced in large quantities in tropical and subtropical areas. World production of Musa in 2003 was estimated at 102 million MT of which about 68% was classified as bananas and 32% as plantains (FAO, 2003). For growing banana need special climate and they are mainly produced in developing countries P (Zhang et al., 2005). The crop is of major importance to the people in the growing. The largest producer of banana is India (27%) and other countries are Ecuador, Brazil, Indonesia, Philippines and China etc. Ecuador (42. 3%), Colombia (24. 7%), Philippines, Dominican Republic, Belgium, Italy, Peru, France, Netherland, Germany are the top exporter countries in 2009.

Banana is a botanically a berry require a warm, humid, frost-free climate with optimum temperatures between 22 and 31°C. In several report it was found that banana plant die in ground level at below temperature -2°C. Primary component of the aroma of fresh bananas is isoamyl acetate which is also called as banana oil. Banana is highly energetic food and rich in potassium, sodium, phosphorus, chlorine, magnesium, sulphur, silicon, calcium; and the vitamins: A, B1, B2, C and B3 (niacin). Banana helps in lowering cholesterol, enhances liver function, regulate heart rhythm and disease, decrease the risk of stroke, regulate Bowel movement, helps keep blood pressure under control and helps in weight loss.

Pineapples are commonly propagated through vegetative means, as the crop sets very few or no seeds and seeds possess slow germination process and low survival rate of seedlings under natural conditions. Vegetative parts such as stem suckers, peduncle slips, and fruit crowns are commonly utilized for vegetative multiplication of pineapple.

Selection of planting materials: Slips or hapa suckers are commonly preferred for commercial multiplication because they may produce fruit within 14-16 months after planting. Crowns are not commonly used as they may take up to 24 months after planting to harvest. Ground suckers (ratoon) and side suckers (side shoots) produce fruit 12-14 months and 18-20 months after flowering, respectively.(Pineapple Technical Group, 1999).

The fresh suckers should not be used for planting. Pineapple suckers should be stored for a few months to allow them to dry before planting, as they may begin to decay if planted in moist soil. Suckers are graded according to vigour and size, such as small, medium, and large. Planting the same graded suckers in the same plot helps to avoid uneven growth of the plant, uneven flowering times, and harvesting times. Additionally, using uniform planting material makes cultural practices easier, increases labour efficiency and other inputs, ultimately reducing the cost of cultivation.

Chadha et al. (1974) observed the superiority of slips and suckers as planting materials compared to crowns. In both slips and suckers, larger planting materials resulted in more vigorous plants. Medium-sized slips or suckers led to more flowering, while larger grade material resulted in a more staggered f lowering period. Smaller slips or suckers yielded fruit earlier. Slips produced better quality fruits, and the yields were comparable to the highest yield obtained with the largest suckers.

1. Introduction

King chilli belongs to the genus Capsicum and species chinense, which is world famous for its heat content. King chilli measures 60 to 85 mm (2. 4 to 3. 3 inches) long and 25 to 30 mm (1. 0 to 1. 2 inches) wide with a red, yellow, orange, or chocolate color. The plant came into limelight when it was announced as the hottest chilli in the world in 2006 (Baruah et al., 2014). The people of the North-eastern India use the fruits of King chilli in different food formulations like flavouring curries due to its high-quality fragrance and pungency and also for various medicinal treatments like rheumatism, arthritis, gastritis, ankylosing spondylitis, digestive diseases (Sarwa et al., 2012) and to reduce chronic congestion (Raktim and Changkija, 2009). It is also used as a bird, animal and insect repellent as well as a biochemical pesticide. The extremely hot or burning sensation of chilli is due to the presence of capsaicinoids found only in Capsicum (Hoffman et al., 1983).

In northeastern India, King chilli has been cultivated in a traditional manner since time immemorial and there exists a considerable amount of genetic variability among the landraces (Raktim and Changkija, 2009). The pharmaceutical applications of capsaicinoids are attributed to their analgesic, antiarthritic, anticancer and antioxidant properties. In fact, capsaicin has been at the centre of intense research for elucidating the basis of its pharmacological properties and exploiting the therapeutic potential (Prasad et al., 2005). It has also been reported that capsaicin inhibits the growth of prostate cancer cells (Mori et al., 2006). The antioxidative capacity of chilli is higher than ginger, garlic, mint and onion (Shobana et al., 2000), which may play an important role in the process of chemoprevention (Yu et al., 2002).

Pineapple is one of the most economically important fruits in tropical and subtropical regions and gaining popularity to the consumers all over the world. The pineapple plant has many specific morphological, anatomical and physiological characteristics that determine crucial aspects of pineapple crop management, such as water use efficiency, nutrient management, weed management, flower induction etc.

Water Requirements and Irrigation

Determination of water requirements and plant moisture status: Pineapple plant responds well to as much as 5 cm of water per month from rain or irrigation though it is a xerophyte type and is capable of good production under relatively meager water supply. Maintenance of available soil moisture in the root zone areas requires less water for pineapple than for other crops due to lower transpiration rates. Plants achieve this type of adaptability through a process called assuberization, where suberin act as a physical barrier, preventing water loss from the tissues it surrounds.Stomata remains closed as an effect of drought during the entire day. But, whenever the plants are grown with sufficient moisture in well-aerated soils produced well-distributed roots with numerous white root tips. It helps the water use efficiency and carbon f ixation that pineapple shows to drip irrigation. The pineapple leaf is a major water storage organ for the pineapple plant (Malézieux et al., 1993). When the leaves are full of water the cells present in upper mesophyll layer can occupy almost half of its volume. Invery little water-supply, the water in the mesophyll layer is absorbed by the plant. Generally, representative ‘D’-leaves are taken in a group of six to ten leaves and the total thickness is measured and compared with the thickness of fully turgid leaves.

Abstract

Starch is a naturally occurring biodegradable polymer and readily available from agriculture. It is widely used in food and non-food applications and isolated from crops such as maize, potatoes, tapioca, rice and wheat. However, in recent years substantial progress has been made on the molecular structure of cereal and tuber starches and their impact on functionality, the following is a subjective summary that presents status of knowledge on isolation of starch from non-conventional source like Acorus calamus (sweet flag). The focus is on potential application of the source as food and non-food derivatives. Extensive work has been carried out on agronomic and phenotypic properties for most tropical crops, but relatively little study has been carried out on the properties which are of direct technical and economic interest to competitive food and non-food industry. Sweet flag (Acorus calamus L.) is an emergent macrophyte, originating in Asia, commonly found in European wetlands. Rhizome is the most important storage organ in Acorus. It contains considerable amounts of carbohydrates and nitrogen-rich compound. This species is growing to 6 feet, with long lanceolate leaves %-inch wide with pronounced midrib, aromatic, with stout rhizomes. The major proportion of total non-structural carbohydrates in rhizomes is starch (91-93% and 51-64% in rhizomes and roots, respectively). However, amount of starch varies among the organs as well. Rhizomes contain the highest amount of starch followed by branched roots and finally by unbranched roots. Rhizomes comprises single to compound grains, with clusters present in high frequencies. Non-conventional food resources and their value addition have attracted attention in the recent years for their potential use as functional ingredients in food formulations, besides food they have also been used for non-food applications. So there is tremendous potential for the profitable commercial use of these tropical starches and exploring them for further use.