eChapters

INTRODUCTION

Many people confuse fortification with the term enrichment. There is a big difference in between these two terms. Fortification means the addition of those ingredients not normally found in a food and it is added to achieve a particular dietary purpose. Lysine may be added to corn products to increase the biological value of the protein. Salt may be iodised to prevent the occurrence of goiter. Breakfast cereals may be fortified with an array of vitamins and minerals to ensure a completely balanced nutritional meal.

In enrichment, the amounts added are designed to meet specific legal standards of minimum and maximum levels of nutrients. It is recognised that in the processing of cereal products that the removal of bran and germ causes a large portion of the vitamins and minerals naturally found in the product to be lost. During World War II an effort was made to correct this deficiency by government endorsement of the enrichment of bread, flour, and cornmeal. Wheat flour, cornmeal, corn grits, bread, ready to eat and uncooked cereals, and macroni products have been enriched with thiamine, ribo-flavin, niacin, iron and in some cases, calcium and vitamin D.

W.H.O. has defined food fortification as “a process where by nutrients are added to foods to maintain or improve the quality of the diet of a group, community or population”.

INTRODUCTION

Adulteration of food consists of substituting it wholly or in part by any cheaper or inferior substance or of removing any of its constituents, wholly or in part, which affects adversely the nature, substance or quality of the food. According to the Indian Prevention of Food Adulteration Act (PFA) 1954, any ingredient which, when present in food, is injurious to health is an adulterant. Thus, according to the PFA definition, many of the food contaminants discussed in the previous section are adulterants and come under the purview of food adulteration.

Adulteration of foods was practised even in ancient times. It was not a serious problem then because business was on a small scale and the transactions involved a large measure of personal accountability. Later, with the increased centralization of food processing and distribution, and corresponding decline in personal accountability, intentional adulteration of food increased. Even in the early nineteenth century, many adulterants were used in articles like pepper, essential oils, vinegar, beverages (coffee, tea, beer, wines), butter, bread, etc. In recent years adulteration of foods has become a serious problem the world over. In western countries there is a rising concern over the safety of the food supply and many remedial actions, both voluntary and enforced, have been taken.

Abstract

Noodles are widely consumed throughout the world and their global consumption is second only to bread. In the study, response of reducing agents (cysteine hydrochloride and sodium metabisulphite) and oxidizing agents (potassium bromate and benzoyl peroxide) at 10 and 20 ppm levels on the farinographic and amylographic curve characteristics as well as on the noodle making properties of durum and commercial wheat semolina were investigated according to the AACC (1990) procedure. The farinographic curve characteristics revealed that water absorption was enhanced with increasing levels of reducing agents but decreased with addition of oxidizing agents. However there was no significant change in Dough Development Time in case of durum semolina on addition of reducing agents, but commercial semolina recorded significant changes at 20 ppm level of reducing agent. The best reducing agent for durum and commercial semolina was thus sodium metabisulphite and cysteine hydrochloride respectively. Addition of oxidizing agent potassium bromate at 20 ppm level enhanced stability and was thus chosen as the best oxidizing agent for durum semolina and benzoyl peroxide for commercial semolina. Addition of reducing and oxidizing agents improved yield, appearance, elasticity and extensibility characteristics of instant fresh noodles. The best levels were used in the preparation of noodles on the Italian extruder (NAMAD).

Food Science is one of the ancient sciences and the genesis originates to the very beginning of human civilization. The advent of food science was associated with practice and observation by humans before establishment of scientific concepts. The ancient man knew that roasting or smoking of meat improves the edible quality and digestibility. As a consequence, he started practicing the same much before the reasons for the same could be established. Many of the modern preservation concepts had their origin in prehistoric period itself as humans could use techniques such as dehydration, fermentation and pickling to their advantage to improve the sensory attributes of the products and also to enhance their shelf life. Humans during the Pre-Neolithic period about 2,50,000 years before used fire for cooking meat. During the Paleolithic period humans not only roasted food but also developed grinding, pounding and drying. During the Mesolithic era, humans were desperate for food and got involved in extensive hunting and fishing. During the same time domestication of animals took place and animal husbandry became a reality (Stewart and Amerine 1982). The Neolithic period made qualitative changes in the food habits of humans and they changed from a food gathering and hunting society to one of food production (Heizer and Elsasser 1980).

Abstract

In the present study, a novel work on comparison of physico-chemical characterization and bacterial diversity of wheat straw compost and vermicomposting has been initiated in the tropical region. Wheat straw compost shows lesser pH, EC, TDS, Organic Carbon, Total Nitrogen and Total Phosphorus than vermicompost whereas there was an increase in Total Nitrogen, Total Phosphorus and Electrical Conductivity and a drop in the pH, TDS and Organic Carbon of the vermicompost as the composting progressed from 0, 3, 10, 17, 24 and 31 days. Strains of Bacillus spp. and Thermoactinomycetes were screened from the wheat straw compost, which are ecologically important and have commercial potential for enzyme production. These strains were able to degrade cellulose, hemicellulose and lignin and exhibited cellulase activity. Enterobacter aerogenes, Micrococcus luteus and E.coli were isolated from the gut of Eudrilis eugeniae which help in the transformation of biodegradable waste materials into valuable compost.

I. INTRODUCTION

Horticultural crops include fruits, vegetables, flowers, plantation crops, spices, and medicinal and aromatic plants have emerged as a major economic activity in India. It contributes 30% GDP from 11.73 % of its arable land area. Horticulture crops cover over 23.4 million hectares of area, which is approximately 12.7% of the total gross cropped area of the country and contributes 18-20% of the gross value of India’s agricultural output (NHB, 2013). India is the world’s second largest fruit and vegetable producing country accounting for 77.7 million metric tonnes of fruit and 159.5m M tonnes of vegetables (NHB, 2013). Besides, about 5.66 million tonnes of loose flowers, spices, mushroom and aromatic plants are also produced. The country produces 41% of world mangoes, 23% banana, 24% cashew nut, 36% green peas, 10% onion and 30% cauliflower and accounts for 12% of world fruit and 13.25% of vegetable production (NHB, 2013). Owing to wide diversity of agro climatic conditions, almost all types of temperate (apple, peach, plum, apricot, cherries and nuts), subtropical (mango, guava, papaya, etc), tropical (banana, pineapple etc), arid fruit (ber and aonla), plantation crops (coconut, cashewnut and arecanut) and diverse variety of vegetables are grown in India. The export of fresh fruit and vegetables from India in 2006-07 was estimated at 9.84 Lakh tonnes valued at Rs 2411.70 crores. Mango, grapes, apple, onion, potato, green vegetables like okra, bitter gourd and green chillies were the major items of export. Similarly, India exported 5.97 Lakh tonnes of processed foods comprising of mango pulp, juices, concentrates, dried and processed vegetables, pickle and chutney, alcoholic and non-alcoholic beverages worth Rs 2818.1 crores (APEDA, 2012) (Table 1 to 3).

Food Safety

The term “safe food” has different standards to different consumers rather than just being the food handled and prepared through proper cleaning, washing and cooking. Safe food means food prepared on clean and sanitized surfaces with equipment, utensils and dishes that also are cleaned and sanitized. Nowadays consumers are extra conscious about the safety and quality of food and for that reason food safety issues have changed, so have society’s methods for making food as safe as possible. Accordingly, “food safety” means assurance that food is acceptable for human consumption according to its intended use (FSSAI 2017).

INTRODUCTION

For thousands of years fermentation processes were largely natural phenomena exclusively identified with food preservation throughout the world. Fermentations can play a significant role in meeting the ever growing food requirements of world population providing benefits in the form of innovative food products with improved nutritional value and food quality along side better safety. Fermentations can be used to address a large variety of food related problems and in the development of processes to meet the demand for food. In the wake of estimations made by international organizations that global food demand and population would increase by two-fold by the year 2050, much emphasis has been placed over the ways and means to increase food production and preservation.

1. INTRODUCTION

Quality, i.e. the degree of excellence or superiority, is a combination of attributes, properties, or characteristics that each commodity value in of human food. The relative importance of each quality component depends upon the commodity and its intended use (e.g. fresh or processed) and varies among producers, handlers, and consumers. Appearance of quality, firmness and shelf-life are important from the point of view of wholesale and retail marketers. Consumers judge quality of fresh fruits and vegetables on the basis of appearance and firmness, flavour (eating) quality of the product. Consumers are also concerned about the nutritional quality and safety of fresh fruit and vegetables.

1. TERMS RELATED WITH BROWNING

Introduction

Food safety and quality are the prime concerns in a global food supply chain. With the globalisation and advancement in the technologies, the global agricultural system transformed to a stage where food standards and international trade work hand-in-hand to promote food safety. The key drivers for this change in food regulations include digital technologies, novel food processing technologies, product labelling, marketing trends, e-commerce, etc. International trade in food sector is governed by the agreement on the application of Sanitary and PhytoSanitary Measures (SPS) and Technical Barriers to Trade (TBT). The agreements allow member nations to impose all measures or standards to protect human, animal, plant life and health, harmonize with the international standards, environmental protection, protection of consumers against deceptive practices and prevention of unjustifiable barriers to international trade.

In general, the developing countries have negligible contribution in the international trade. There are instances where the quality attributes of the commodities do not meet the required parameters as envisaged by the international market. Various issues associated with the product rejection on the basis of food safety and health standards are a matter of concern today rather than before. Hence, United Nations FAO and WTO urged the active involvement of the developing countries in the food standard setting processes in Codex Alimentarius as well as in SPS and TBT Committees. This will ensure harmonisation of food quality standards and traceability for rapid response to food borne disease outbreaks. Governments and local authorities shall intervene in the market place in setting technical regulations; and sanitary and phytosanitary measures which in turn will encourage the food processing companies around the world to implement food safety management systems to ensure the production and distribution of safe foods.

Introduction

Drying is one of the oldest methods of preserving food. Drying and dehydration both can be defined as the process of removing moisture from the foods. It is a simultaneous heat and mass transfer process, wherein heating medium or internal heat generation helps in evaporation of free water molecules from the product. Drying means removal of moisture of food upto a predetermined level where as in dehydration, complete removal of moisture upto bone dry weight of food material. Dehydrated foods have less than 2.5 % moisture content (dry basis) where as dried foods have dry basis moisture content more than 2.5 %. Drying operation consumes energy from 0.38 to 0.63 GJ/ton of food grain. Removal of water from foods using thermal energy thus makes it an energy intensive process. Modes of heat Transfer in various Driers are given in Table 1.Developments in dryer and methods, dryer selection based on form of raw material and typical residence time for various dryer are are given in Table 2,3 and 4, respectively.

Introduction

Fermentation is playing an important role in the human life and is evident from the fact that food can be both spoiled and made by fermentation. A wide range of the fermented food products are consumed by the consumers in their daily routine. It is one for the oldest and ancient method of food preservation. It may have been a mere accident when people first experienced the taste of fermented food. Fermentation became popular with the dawn of civilization because it not only preserved food but also gave it a variety of tastes, forms, and other sensory sensations. Fermentation, along with salting, cooking, smoking, and sun drying, is one of the earliest ancient traditions developed by cultures all around the world to extend the possible storage time of foods. Slowly, people have realized the nutritional and therapeutic value of fermented foods and drinks, and this has made fermented foods even more popular. Bread, beer, wine, and cheese originated long before Christ. Although modern food technology has contributed to the present day high standard of quality and hygiene of fermented foods, the principles of the age-old processes have hardly changed. In industrialized societies, a variety of fermented foods are very popular with consumers because of their attractive flavor and their nutritional value. During food fermentations, the controlled action of selected micro-organisms is used to alter the texture of foods, preserve foods by production of acids or alcohol, or to produce subtle f lavours and aromas which increase the quality and value of raw materials. After drying, fermentation is the world’s oldest food preservation method.

1. INTRODUCTION

Food is constantly being rated for its quality either consciously or subconsciously by all people. Consumers choose food on the basis of its quality and their individual likes or dislikes. The attractiveness of food is clearly a quality which is important both to the manufacturer and to the consumer. When consumers make a selection they basically look for food that is attractive in terms of colour, flavour and texture apart from other psychological and social factors, which they may associate with food. The nutritional quality, shelf-life/keeping quality and cost factor are other criteria which may affect their selection.

The distinctive and attractive colour of food is not only pleasing but is also an indicator of good quality and freshness. The senses of taste and odour help us in detecting and appreciating different flavours and deciding on whether we like the food. The feel and texture of food entering the mouth should be firm, juicy, crisp and are extremely important characteristics that dictate the acceptance of a food. Today’s consumers are discerning, demanding, and more knowledgeable about food. They expect safe products having good value and high sensory quality. Therefore, knowing consumer’s preferences and perceptions of the sensory characteristics of food and beverage products is vital to food manufacturers. Without appropriate evaluation, there is a high risk of market failure.

Abstract

The irradiation process involves exposing the food, either prepackaged or in bulk, to a predetermined level of ionization radiation. In this process, it is important to know sources of ionization radiation, how energy is quantified, and its scope with advantages and limitations.The traditional methods like preservation, such as drying, smoking and salting have been supplemented with pasteurisation (by heat), canning (commercial sterilisation by heat), refrigeration, freezing and chemical preservatives. ‘Food irradiation’ is another technology that can be added to the list. By realizing its importance present chapter highlighted with some basic aspects as well as its applications and other related aspects of food irradiation. Food irradiation involves basic principles like; Pasteurization (Pathogen Reduction) 2. Sterilization 3. Sanitation 4. Disinfestation. As concern to dosage can be applied as  low, medium and high based on type of radiation, type of food, type of packaging material and time of application. It has broader range of application in preservation with this also has few limitations which have become bottlenecks in this technology. Though technology is employing much in developed countries rather than developing once. Prospectus should be given in those countries also.

1.1. Introduction

Food packaging involves enclosing the food product to ensure its safe delivery to end consumer in safe condition. Packaging is one of the integral components of the food industry. In order to maintain the basic nutritional and functional attributes of food material, they must be packaged safely. A faulty package can ruin all the efforts made to develop the food product. Selection of right packaging system and packaging material is essential to arrest the deterioration of food products from physical, chemical and biological factors. 

Food fortification is the procedure in which micronutrients (essential trace elements and vitamins) are added to the food. As a public health policy fortification can be carried out by the food manufacturers or by the governments to help people in combatting dietary deficiencies within a population. Fortification can be done in food even if these nutrients are originally present or not. However, it improves the nutritional status of a population by overcoming the deficiencies of micronutrients. Deficiency of micronutrients is known as hidden hunger which is a serious health risk. Access to safe and nutritious food is a must.Due to the lack of consumption of a balanced diet, adequate micronutrients are not supplied to the body. Therefore, there is a considerable loss of nutrients during the processing of food. One of the strategies to address this problem is fortification of food.

For Indian foods

Food processing industries are the fastest growing in India. India is the largest producer of milk, bananas, mangoes, guavas, papaya, ginger and okra. It is the second largest producer of wheat, rice, fruits, vegetables, tea, sugarcane and cashew nut. It is the third largest producer of cereals, coconut, lettuce, chicory, nutmeg, mace, cardamom and pepper at the global level (Highlights of Agriculture Census, 2010-11, http://pib.nic.in/newsite/PrintRelease.aspx?relid=132799). Most part of the income is spent on foods. It is important to establish and nurture mutually beneficial relationships with global food processing, food retail and related supply chain organizations. This will in turn help in the realization of significant business growth opportunities in India, through newer technologies, innovations and ways of value additions. The geographical location of India helps in the export of items to other countries. It is connected to Europe, Middle East and Africa from the western coast and to Japan, Singapore, Thailand, Malaysia, Korea, Australia and New Zealand from the eastern coast. Food processing is a priority sector for the Indian Government, especially in recent times with “Make in India” initiative.The country is considered as one of the most favourable markets because of the easy and affordable credit and other fiscal incentives. The total consumption of food and beverages in India is US$ 369 billion which is expected to increase to US$1.142 trillion and the output in the food processing sector might increase to US$ 958 billion by 2025. This offers a vast market opportunity by the Indian food processing, food retail, transport, logistics and related infrastructure sectors to players in the food processing value chain. The market for plant and machinery in the food processing sector is estimated in the year 2024-25 to be USD 51.41 billion as compared to the current value of USD 17.3 billion (2016-17).

Abstract

Mycotoxins are naturally occurring chemicals produced by fungi growing on grain, feed or food. The fungi that produce mycotoxins in grains commonly include Fusarium, Aspergillus and Penicillium species. The toxins can accumulate in maturing corns, cereals, soybeans, sorghum, peanuts and other food and feed crops in the field and in grain during transportation. The toxins may occur in storage under conditions favorable for the growth of the toxin producing fungi. Diseases in animals and human beings resulting from the consumption of mycotoxins are called Mycotoxicoses. These fungal metabolites are detrimental to the health of both animals and human. Toxicity ranges from acute death to chronic diseases, cancer and reproductive malfunction. Mycotoxin contamination of food and feed grains is a serious economic problem for grain producers and processors because grain contamination impacts market 

14.1. Introduction

There is a tremendous need to change the way society produces, and consumes materials to manage the environmental effect in the growing scarcity of resources. To overcome this issue, recycling process could be a great possibility that reduce the uses of natural resources, maximizethe waste utilization and produce least environmental impact. Unfortunately, packaging materials contribute 40% of solid waste in Western Europe, and 33% in US. In fact, packaging waste is likely to increase in transitioning and developing countries. Recycling process consists of collection, sorting, recovery, and management of packaging materials. As per the report of “Eurostat statistics in 2018”,European Union (EU) generates 174.1 kg of packaging waste per inhabitant, Croatia contributes 67.8 kg per inhabitant and Germany produce 227.5 kg per inhabitant.