eChapters

Vacreation: The pasteurization of the milk or cream under reduced pressure by direct steam is called vacreation. This process removes feed and other volatile flavors from cream and to pasteurize it for butter making. This is also called vacuum pasteurization (Plate 623).

Vacuum: The state of negative pressure. It is equal to atmospheric pressure minus absolute pressure.

Vacuum cooling: A technique of cooling vegetable (leafy vegetables, asparagus, brussels sprouts) having a high surface to volume ratio; rapidly and uniformly by boiling off some of their water at 10C and at low pressure (5 mm of Hg) into a sealed container. The produce is cooled by evaporation of water from the tissue surface and is more rapid than hydro cooling (Plate 624).

Vacuum drier: A drier used to dry heat sensitive products where low pressure lowers the temperature, helps to retain natural flavour and minimizes oxidation and browning is called vacuum drier (Plate 625).

13.1 Introduction

Hospitality industry is the second largest industry in the world. It is well diversified and can be chosen as per the interest. Hospitality management involves planning, organizing, directing and controlling human and other resources within the different segments of hospitality industry i.e. lodging, restaurant, travel and tourism, institutional management, recreational management, meeting and convention planning industries. Although, these all are separate but related segments of the hospitality industry and are interrelated to provide good and efficient services to the guests and users. Hospitality industry provides services which are need oriented and differ in various parts of the world as per regions and the traditional styles.

The first building created specifically for hotel was ‘City Hotel’ with 73 rooms at 115 Broadway, New York in 1794. Pallonjee Pestonjee established the very first western-style hotel in India, “The Bristol Hotel” in Mumbai in 1840. According to the report of the department of Tourism, Government of India, at the end of the year 2004, there were 167 Five star hotels with approx. 28,900 rooms, whereas 126 Four star hotels, with 8,831 rooms [2]. To expedite the ongoing process of classification/re-classification of functioning hotels in one to three star categories, five Regional Committees have also been set up in Delhi, Mumbai, Kolkata, Guwahati and Chennai to conduct inspection [3].

Macaroni: Pasta made from semolina and shaped in the form of slender tubes.

Macaroni wheat: It is tetraploid wheat and is preferred for making macaroni, vermicelli etc.

Macaroon: A small cookie composed chiefly of egg whites, sugar, and ground almonds or coconut.

Mace: An aromatic spice consisting of the dried external fibrous covering of a nutmeg.

Macronutrient: A chemical element (as nitrogen, phosphorus, or potassium) of which relatively large quantities are essential to the growth and health of a plant or a substance (as protein or carbohydrate) essential in large amounts to the growth and health of an animal.

Magnesium silicate: It is use as glazing and polishing agents in confectionery products.

Magness - Taylor Pressure Tester: It is used to study the compression or firmness of peas, pear and apples.

The food we eat contains nourishing substances called nutrients which are required by human body for proper functioning and maintenance of body health. They are classified into five groups such as:

Carbohydrates,

Protein,

Fats,

Minerals

Vitamins

Packaging : Packaging of fruits, vegetables, flowers or any other commodity is chiefly done to assemble the produce in convenient units of different sizes, shapes & types for storage, transportation, marketing and distribution. The size of units may vary depending on the requirement e.g for retail marketing smaller units are preferred and for bulk transportation and storage, large units would be more convenient.

Why do we Require Packaging?

Imagine there is no packaging material and technology available. How we are going to transport apple, mango etc. to distant markets? Definitely as loose. Then how can we weigh or count the fruits being transported or marketed? This would be very difficult. Had there been no packaging the commodity would have suffered great physical, chemical and microbiological losses. It would have been very difficult to handle, manage, transport and market the produce as loose and unpacked. Therefore, the packaging of fresh as well as processed commodities was needed to contain, unitize and protect the produce.

Nature has made such a beautiful system that a fruit does not spoil unless its outer covering is removed and till it is there on the plant. For example banana will not spoil for long time if we do not remove its peel. Similar is the case with apple, guava, mango and many other fruits and vegetables. But as soon as the outer covering is removed the damage begins and the commodity is spoilt very soon.

Preservation is extending shelf life of fresh or processed food by using various methods and prevention or reduction of spoilage. Better the preservation, lesser the spoilage, more the spoilage poorer and inefficient is the preservation.

Therefore, in order to prevent or reduce the spoilage, we have to first identify and understand the causes of spoilage. There are chiefly 3 agencies that cause spoilage in fruits and vegetables i.e. (i) microorganisms, (ii) enzymes & chemical changes and (iii) man, animals, rodents, insects, etc. For effective preservation we have to check the growth and activity of these spoilage causing agencies. So, in order to prevent spoilage and preserve a perishable commodity for long time the following principles and methods are to be followed.

The packaging requirements for food products go beyond mere containment. Effective packaging must serve multiple functions, such as protecting food from physical and environmental hazards, providing convenience to consumers, and acting as a medium for communication and branding. Each requirement is essential to ensure food quality, safety, and longevity, as well as to meet consumer expectations and regulatory standards. As food products vary in their characteristics and shelf-life requirements, packaging must be tailored to suit these specific needs while also considering factors like transportation, storage, and market positioning. This chapter delves into the fundamental requirements of food packaging, examining the functional roles that packaging plays across various product categories. By understanding these requirements and functions, we can appreciate the complexity of designing effective food packaging that fulfills multiple roles in the modern food supply chain

Lamination and coating techniques are integral to modern food packaging, providing additional layers of protection, functionality, and appeal to the packaging materials. These techniques enhance barrier properties, improve durability, and enable packaging to withstand a range of environmental and mechanical stresses. Lamination typically involves bonding multiple layers of materials to achieve specific characteristics, such as moisture resistance, heat stability, and strength. Coating, on the other hand, adds a surface layer that can enhance properties like grease resistance, sealability, and printability. This chapter explores the various lamination and coating techniques used in food packaging, examining their applications, benefits, and potential limitations.

1.1. Global Dairy Scenario

Global milk production is forecast at 852 million tonnes in 2019, an increase of 1.4 per cent from 2018 (DAHD, 2019) – a smaller rate of growth, reflecting downward revisions made for India and the European Union. Much of the anticipated output expansion will originate in India, Pakistan, China, the European Union, and Brazil, partially offset by declines in some countries including Australia, Colombia, and Argentina. In India and Pakistan, herd expansions drive output growth, while in China, farm efficiency improvements underpin higher growth. The output is increasing in the European Union, although slowly as dry weather limited the supply of milk during the summer, whilst rising dairy herds and stable milk prices are supporting higher production in Brazil. By contrast, the output may decline in Australia and Colombia due to dry weather, whereas in Argentina, rising feed costs and restrained consumer demand may dampen production. Elsewhere, in the United States, higher milk yields hold up the growth momentum, whereas, in New Zealand, favourable weather corroborates a positive production outlook (DAHD,19).

Cheese, butter, whole milk powder, and skimmed milk powder are a major part of the world’s dairy trade. The demand for worldwide dairy exports is highly concentrated. With a share of 12 per cent, New Zealand is the largest exporter of dairy products, followed by Germany, Netherlands, France and the US. Germany has been the world’s major dairy importer as well with a share of 10 per cent. Other large dairy product importers are China, Netherlands, France, Italy and Belgium.

Before 1999, India was a net importer of dairy products. The successful implementation of the ‘Operation Flood’ program and trade reforms caused the direction of India’s dairy trade to change marginally. India has been a net exporter of dairy products since 2000. Statistics show that India’s export share of dairy products over world dairy exports increased marginally from 0.1 per cent in 2001 to 0.5 per cent in 2019, while its import share of dairy products over world dairy imports increased marginally from 0.018 per cent in 2001 to 0.04 per cent in 2019. The Middle East, South Asia, South East Asia, and the USA are the major markets for India’s dairy products. Conversely, India is a favorable market for the European Union, New Zealand, Australia, UAE, and US dairy products.

1. Sample: One or more units selected from a population of units, or a portion of material selected from a larger quantity of material
2. The Standard Operating Procedures (SOPs) should contain full working instructions as well as information on applicability, expected performance, internal quality control (performance verification) requirements and calculation of results. It should also contain information on any hazards arising from the method, from standards or from reagents.
3. Analytical Samples: The quantity of the analytical sample to be used is usually indicated in tests and assays. Unless otherwise specified, the quantity used may deviate by 10% from that stated. All quantitative determinations should be conducted on triplicate test portions and in these cases, the amount actually taken should be accurately weighed or measured and the result of the analysis calculated on this exact quantity. When substances are to be “accurately weighed” in a test or assay, the weighing is to be performed in such manner as to limit the error to ± 0.1% or less. Quantities smaller than 100 mg should be weighed to the nearest 0.1 mg.

1. Introduction

Rasogolla is a sweetened dairy product which is made from milk mainly from casein protein. Generally rasogolla is made by heating the raw milk around 80-850C ,then slowly cool the milk around 650C and acid coagulation of the milk is done. Then separate the channa (mainly casein) and whey, and drained the whey followed by the pressing of the channa to remove the excess water. Then channa is thoroughly kneaded and are rolled to balls and cooked in sugar syrup and get the rasogulla. Total value of 1000 billion for Indian dairy output in 2001, the output of traditional dairy products is estimated at over 400 billion. The share of the organized sector in the indigenous products is at present only 50 billion only (Patil, 2005).

Abstract

Consumer now-a-days relies on manufacturing and processing standards, particularly to know what ingredients are present, due to dietary, nutritional requirements, or medical conditions (e.g., diabetes orallergies). Modified PCR and combination of PCR with other analytical tools have been successfully used for analysis of various parameters related to functional foods such as detection and quantification of beneficial as well as food borne pathogenic microorganisms, food allergens, raw material source, bioactive compounds, genetically modified foods. Multiplex PCR method has been found to be an efficient tool for simple, rapid, and reliable identification of Lactobacillus and Bifidobacterium in probiotic products. Food allergens like gluten, peanut, hazelnut etc. could be easily detected in foods using PCR, even if present in small quantities. BOX-PCR and PCR-DGGE analysis have been used for identification of bacterial diversity of a naturally fermented functional food (Enzyme). HPLC combined with real time -PCR were successfully used to quantify and analyse compounds of secondary metabolites like phenylpropanoid amides, which represent an important class of nutraceutical having strong antioxidant and chemotherapeutic effects in various transgenic tomato tissues. Detection of active compounds in natural plant products were successfully achieved using PCR techniques. In general PCR have gained more importance as it has high sensitivity, improved precision, wide dynamic range for quantification, genotype based and is quick method of detection and quality control of foods than traditional culture based methods.

Pineapple is a wonderful tropical fruit having exceptional juiciness, vibrant tropical flavour and immense health benefits. Pineapple contains considerable calcium, potassium, fibre, and vitamin C. It is low in fat and cholesterol. Vitamin C is the body’s primary water soluble antioxidant, against free radicals that attack and damage normal cells. It is also a good source of vitamin B1, vitamin B6, copper and dietary fibre. Pineapple is a digestive aid and a natural Anti-Inflammatory fruit. A group of sulfur-containing proteolytic (protein digesting) enzyme (bromelain) in pineapple aids digestion. Fresh pineapples are rich in bromelain used for tenderising meat. Bromelain has demonstrated significant anti-inflammatory effects, reducing swelling in inflammatory conditions such as acute sinusitis, sore throat, arthritis and gout and speedy recovery from injuries and surgery. Pineapple enzymes have been used with success to treat rheumatoid arthritis and to speed tissue repair as a result of injuries, diabetic ulcers and general surgery. Pineapple reduces blood clotting and helps remove plaque from arterial walls. Studies suggest that pineapple enzymes may improve circulation in those with narrowed arteries, such as angina sufferers. Pineapples are used to help cure bronchitis and throat infections. It is efficient in the treatment of arterioscleroses and anaemia. Pineapple is an excellent cerebral toner; it combats loss of memory, sadness and melancholy. Pineapple fruits are primarily used in three segments, namely, fresh fruit, canning and juice concentrate with characteristic requirements of size, shape, colour, aroma and flavour.

Introduction

Food safety and quality assumes paramount significance in any food industry. Globalization has driven both the food and agricultural firms to adopt systems that functions in a way to interlink food standards and international trade so as to achieve superior food quality and safety. Food industries follow several regional and international food safety procedures to procure certification from the government and other agencies in order to survive in both domestic and international markets (Ryan, 2014). The essential components in the food safety include handling, preparation and storing of the food products to ensure the food quality and to avoid food-borne diseases. The unwanted substances in a food product included by an accident is known as contaminants and the unwanted substance added to the food product to reduce the cost or to improve the other properties are known as adulterants. Contaminants and adulterants may lead to pathogens and toxins that pose serious concerns over the health of the consumer (Jha, 2016). The adulterants and contaminants are classified as physical adulterants and contaminants, chemical adulterants and residues, microbiological and pathogenic contaminants and toxins.

Hazards in food can be categorized into physical, chemical and biological.

Physical Hazards: Physical hazards are foreign organic or inorganic objects or extraneous materials in the food products. Hard and sharp physical hazards are of particular concern. Examples of physical hazards are broken glass, plastics, metal pieces, wood pieces, stones etc.

In this chapter, the importance of seafood in terms of their nutrition, and different methods of processing are dealt. Seafood quality and safety terminologies are explained briefly. The quality parameters affected by rigor mortis in raw, iced and cooked fish are given. Phenomenon of gaping described with reference to rigor mortis. Quality dimension of seafood is explained with intrinsic and extrinsic parameters. Various intrinsic factors affecting seafood quality such as f ish species, seasonal changes, parasite infestation and capture conditions are discussed in detail. The next part elucidates the sensory parameters affecting the seafood quality describing the objective and subjective method of quality assessments. Objective method covers both descriptive and discriminative tests. The final part mentions the Codex guidelines available for the conduction of seafood sensory assessment. At the end, the reader gains the knowledge on the basic information about seafood, role of rigor mortis in affecting seafood quality and the sensory quality assessment methods.

Objective

To learn the nutritional importance of seafood and their processing; rigor mortis and their role in seafood quality, intrinsic and extrinsic factors affecting seafood quality and sensory quality assessment methods.

1.1. Importance of Seafood

Seafood has been traditionally a part of diet in many parts of the world. In some countries like India, it constitutes the main supply of animal protein among coastal population. Seafood is a low-calorie food and easily digestible compared to other protein-rich meat and poultry products and hence, it is a good choice for elderly persons to obtain their daily protein requirements. Seafood has high-quality quality enriched with all the essential amino acids required for human health. It provides about 1/3rd of the average recommended daily allowance (RDA) of protein.

INTRODUCTION

Pulses are edible fruits or seeds of food bearing plants belonging to the family of the leguminosae. The major pulses which find important place in our diet are redgram dhal, bengal gram dhal, black gram dhal, green gram dhal and masoor dhal. Some are used as whole grams cow pea, rajmah and dry peas also belong to leguminous family.

Legumes not only have dietary values but also play an important role in maintaining or even improving soil fertility through their ability to fix atomospheric nitrogen.

Abstract

Prebiotics are the non-digestible food ingredients that beneficially affect the host by selectively stimulating the growth and/or activity of one or limited number of bacteria in the colon. These are heat resistant components which remain intact during the baking process; this allows prebiotics to be incorporated into every day food choices. Consumption of non-digestible ingredients allows the growth ofbio cultures by reaching the intestine unaffected by the digestion process resulting in improvement of digestive health. Prebiotics reach the intestine in an unaltered form and shows the prebiotic effect when there is an increase in the activity of healthy bacteria in the human intestine. The prebiotics stimulate the growth of healthy bacteria such as bifidobacteria and lactobacilli in the gut and increase resistance to invading pathogens. Functional foods increase consumer choice by adding prebiotics to every day food items such as cereals, biscuits, breads, table spreads, drinks, and yoghurts. By continuing to eat and drink common foods, but choosing functional alternatives (such as bread containing prebiotics) dietary requirements can be met, without significant changes to foodpreferences. Some common example of cereal based products containing prebiotics are oat-based prebiotic drink, Breakstone's and Knudsen live active cottage cheese, prebiotic yogurt- Attune and Muller vitality, multi-fruit drink enrich and flavoured water enrich, prebiotic flavoured water, prebiotic capsules, dried fruit bars, prebiotic powder- Biocare fructo-oligosaccharides, Newtree purplaisir chocolate spread. The claims are constipation relief, suppression of diarrhea and reduction of the risks of osteoporosis, atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease associated with dyslipidemia and insulin resistance, obesity and possibly Type-2 diabetes. At present, claims about reduction of disease risk are only tentative and further research is needed.

1. Proteins in solution absorb ultraviolet light with absorbance maxima at 280 and 200 nm. Amino acids with aromatic rings are the primary reason for the absorbance peak at 280 nm. Peptide bonds are primarily responsible for the peak at 200 nm.
2. Aromatic amino acids tyrosine and tryptophan give proteins their characteristic ultraviolet (UV) absorption at 280 nm, which is routinely used to estimate protein concentration. Phenylalanine and disulfide bonds also contribute to absorption at 280 nm, albeit slightly.

Pineapple is a short-stemmed herbaceous plant that necessitates a significant amount of planting material. For example, depending on the intensity of planting and the cultivar used, one hectare of cultivation needs 35,000 to 70,000 planting parts. Realizing the need for quick multiplication, Ma (1968) devised a method for quick pineapple multiplication using the decapitation technique. Later a technique for rapid in vitro propagation has been developed. Since then, numerous reports on crop micro-propagation using tissue culture techniques have been published. On supplemented MS medium, different types of explants, such as leaf base, shoot base, excised lateral buds and tips from crowns, young-leaf segments, and excised leaf buds, have been used to regenerate plants. Plantlets raised in this manner thrived in the field. In vitro mutation may also be induced using tissue culture techniques. Shoot tips from in vitro grown plantlets may be treated with chemical mutagens (EMS) or irradiated with gamma rays to produce mutants with superior traits such as spineless leaves, larger fruits, improved pulp consistency, or disease resistance. Similarly, somaclonal variants can be screened out early to improve f ield results.