eChapters

Introduction

The hilly states in north eastern India are not only famous for their forest wealth and awesome wild assets. These states are also known for their track record in harvesting specific crops and fruits. Some of the iconic ones are like, “Assam tea” which is famous in and outside India and popularity of “Khasi mandarin” is also well known. The small landlocked state Tripura produces quality pineapples in abundant amounts, where cv. Queen is popular among the growers. Sikkim and other states of north eastern region of India is known for their Organic Farming techniques, which is mostly attributed the nature of hill farming on this region. North-East is rich in horticultural aspect viz., f loriculture with a rich variety of medicinal plants grown there along with various fruits and vegetables. An analysis of NSSO survey data on cultivation practices shows that the North-East hill states have retained traditional practices and show an inclination towards organic agriculture that is harnessed for the development of the region with ecological benefits.

Onion (Allium cepa L.) is one of the oldest and most widely cultivated vegetable crops, with a history of domestication extending over five thousand years. Valued for its culinary, medicinal, nutritional and cultural importance, it has travelled across continents through migration, trade and agricultural exchange. Its broad ecological adaptability has enabled cultivation in temperate, subtropical and tropical regions. The chapter examines probable centres of origin, historical evidence of cultivation, domestication and geographical dispersal. It also explains onion’s nutritional and therapeutic significance, global production status, genetic diversification and role in human civilization, providing a historical foundation for understanding modern onion improvement and cultivation.

The History of Fish Keeping

Philip Henry Gosse (1810-1888) coined a term “Aquarium” which is now familiar to all of us, in his 1854 book The aquarium: An unveiling of the wonders of the deep sea.

The idea of keeping aquariums can be dated back to 2500 BC and has evolved into a complex hobby that exists today. Ancient Sumerians and Romans kept fish in containers as early as 2500 BC, similar to what we now know as fish tanks. These tanks were designed to keep fish alive long enough to prepare the specimen for food. It is also known that Romans and Babylonians kept ponds filled with fish for ornamental use (History of Fish Keeping as a Hobby).

As time progressed, the art of fish keeping became a “luxury for the rich” (DuHammel 1). Many people consider the Chinese as being the most important contributors to the hobby. “By 1136 AD Emperor Hiau-Tsung started to breed and keep these fish in a more controlled environment. Several new breeds of ornamental fish ornamental emerged.” (DuHammel 1). As more people became involved in the idea of fish keeping, having a goldfish was no longer an indicator of a person’s status. Many common people began to keep goldfish; the fish that they kept represented a good luck charm.

Abstract

Osmotic dehydration is gaining popularity due to several energy and product quality related advantages it offers. It has huge potential as a complementary process step prior to operations such as air-drying, microwave drying, freezing, frying etc, if not an alternative one, in the food process chain. It can be easily integrated with other processing steps in order to improve the overall efficiency of a given food process. Application of additional driving force either prior to or during osmotic dehydration can enhance the mass transfer rates in the osmotic dehydration. Role of mathematical modelling both in osmotic dehydration and rehydration have been discussed. Current limitations for the adaptation of osmotic dehydration in the food processing industry and possible solutions are also discussed in detail.

Introduction

The drying of fruits and vegetables during the season of abundance in order to preserve them for consumption during season of shortage is an ancient practice. Thus, drying is one of the oldest methods of preservation of the food commodities. It is practiced from ancient times and is a very common method of preservation in the tropical countries like India where conditions are much more favorable for sun drying. All micro-organisms need moisture to grow. So the removal of water in the food is brought down below a certain level at which they are unable to grow. Moisture content from food can be removed by different methods like sun drying (very oldest method and most popular), solar drying, cabinet drying, mechanical drying, tunnel drying, poly tunnel drying, adiabatic drying, spray drying, osmotic drying, fluidized bed drying etc. Grains are mostly dried in the sun. The moisture content of the grains can be reduced to a limit that is safer for their storage by sun drying. Many fruits and vegetables can also be dried by using sun energy. Some coastal areas of the countries fishes are also dried by exposing to the sun. After drying, sometimes the dried products are converted into powder. However, these powders are very hygroscopic and should be packed in airtight. Mango powder is prepared by this technique, but expensive and not popular in India. Nowadays many artificial methods have been developed for removal of the moisture. The relationship between the moisture content and temperature of air during process is referred as Psychrometric relation. An instrument used to measure the humidity (Relative humidity) of the atmosphere is known as Psychrometer (Hygrometer). The residual moisture in vegetable should not be more than 6-8% and in fruits it should be in the range of 10-20%. The dried fruit can be used as such or after soaking while dried vegetable are usually soaked in water overnight and then cooked. Vegetable are considered to be dry when they become brittle. There are generally two drying methods for foods like 1) Natural drying and 2) Artificial drying. The preservation / stability of the dehydrated products is conferred by the abstraction of water, so that the product is unable to support the microbial growth, its chemical forms of deterioration is inhibited and the drastic reduction in the weight / volume facilitate easier handling and marketing. Among dehydrated products, dehydrated onions have largest share of 45%. India is the third largest exporter of the onions in the world next to the Netherland and Spain. Besides this, India exports dehydrated bell pepper, garlic and mushrooms.

Botanically fruits are ripened ovary. It is a plant part that may or may not be purely derived from ovary of the flowers may be fleshy or pulpy in character, often juicy, predominantly sweet. With somewhat acidic taste, fragrance, aromatic flavours, fruits are generally not consumed during principal part of meals. Whereas vegetable is plant part which is less sweet, generally non acidic and consumed either cooked or raw during the principal part of our main meals. Vegetables may be fruit, root, stem flower, or leaf part of a plant or their modification.
Fruits and vegetables are valued in in human diet as an important source of protective nutrients like Minerals and vitamins. Apart from their nutritive value they add variety to the diet and improve acceptability of meal due to presence of different shades of colours, flavours, and texture. However, the major role in food preservation is played by their moisture content. For the same reason they are classified as
1. Perishable: Those which deteriorate quickly after harvesting such as tomatoes, mangoes, papaya, peaches, plums, juicy fruits and vegetables. They have high degree of moisture content and are highly susceptible to spoilage.
2. Semi perishable: These have less moisture content as compared to perishable one’s example 30 carrots, peace, green beans, apple etc. These foods are containing certain natural inhibitors to spoilage.

Introduction

Lipids are among the major components of food of plant and animal origin (food lipid). There is no precise definition available for the term lipid; however, it always includes a broad category of compounds that have some common properties and compositional similarities. Lipids are materials that are sparingly soluble or insoluble in water, but soluble in selected organic solvents like benzene, chloroform, ether, hexane, and methanol. Together with carbohydrates and proteins, lipids constitute the principal structural components of tissues (Erwin Wsowicz et al., 2004). Lipid oxidation is one of the major reasons that foods deteriorate and is caused by the reaction of fats and oils with molecular oxygen resulting in off-flavours that are generally called rancidity. Exposure to light, pro-oxidants and elevated temperature will accelerate the reaction (Velasco, J et al., 2010). Rancidity is related to characteristic off-flavour and odour of the oil. There are two major causes of rancidity. One occurs when oil reacts with oxygen and is called oxidative rancidity (Ribeiro et. al., 1993). The other cause of rancidity is by a combination of enzymes and moisture. Enzymes like lipases liberate fatty acids from the triglyceride to make di and monoglycerides and free fatty acids and such liberation of free fatty acids is named hydrolysis. Hydrolysis is additionally caused by chemical process that’s prompted by factors like heat or presence of water. Rancidity caused by hydrolysis is called hydrolytic rancidity. Oxidation cares mainly with the unsaturated fatty acids. Oxidative rancidity is off interest because it results in the event of unfavourable off-flavours which will be detected early within the development of rancidity, more so than in the case of hydrolytic rancidity. Oxidation can alter the flavour and nutritional quality of foods and produce toxic compounds, all of which may make the foods less acceptable or unacceptable to consumers. Oxidation products typically include low relative molecular mass compounds that are volatile also as undesirable off-flavour compounds (Food lipids).

Pack inspection: It is similar to continuous inspection except that here inspector(s) may make in-process checks during different processing operations under contract but not required to be present all the times in the plant during operation.

Package: The package means a pre packed box, tin, barrel, pouch or can etc in which food article is packed.

Package store: A store that sells bottled or canned alcoholic beverages for consumption off the premises.

Packaging: Packaging is an industrial and marketing technique for containing, protecting, identifying and facilitating the sale and distribution of agricultural, industrial and consumer products (Plate 467). Packaging is defined as an enclosure of products, items or package in a wrapped pouch, bags, box, cup, bottle or any container form to perform one or more of the functions as containment, protection and preservation, communication and utility or performance. Technically, packaging is a system or method by which a product from the manufacturing point to the consumer level reaches in a safe and sound condition at an affordable cost. The primary purpose of the packaging is to protect the food product, to keep it in good condition and to preserve the flavour until it reaches the consumer. It is therefore, very essential that a suitable form of the packaging is chosen for a finished product. Packaging is an art, which determines the buying decision of a consumer. or Wrapping / placement of objects in paper / other packaging materials, keeping in box, etc is known as packaging which has two main functions, to assemble the produce / objects in convenient units for handling and to protect them during transporting, marketing and storage which results in extended shelf life of the produce. “Packaging” play a very important role not only in ensuring safety of the product during transportation, storage and distribution and in conveying information about the pack contents to the consumers, but also ensuring desired sensory characteristics and micro biological soundless till consumed.

Packaging is a tool that is used to contain the product, protect the product from environmental hazards and help in marketing the product. Examples of ideal natural packaging systems are that of a banana, orange, coconut and egg, where the packaging is provided by nature. The major step forward in the food processing arena has been the ability to protect and preserve products with packaging and hence ensuring the availability of fresh and processed products out of season and over long distances in various forms. Milk is a highly perishable product and is not uniformly available round the year to the whole country due to geographical and genetic variations. If dairy products are to be available all the year round the country, irrespective of the season and area, it must be presented in packages that are convenient to purchase and use.

Packaging has additional responsibilities of providing convenience, safety and facilitating, besides handling, storage and distribution of products. It should prevent spoilage of food by microbial or insect attack. It also preserves the quality and nutritive value of many foods by the exclusion of oxygen and the control of moisture loss or gain. It increases the shelf-life and ensures longer availability and contributes to the product image through structural and graphic design. Product information is also given out through the medium of labeling, which acts as a tool for marketing and advertising.

Packaging

Packaging is a mean or system by which a fresh or processed product will reach from the production center to consumer in safe and sound condition at an affordable price.

Objectives of packaging and packaging materials

The primary objective or packaging is to protect the contents during storage, transportation and distribution against deterioration. It may be physical, chemical or biological. However, followings are objectives of packaging and packaging materials.

Packaging is an integral part of fruit and vegetable processing. It has  major influence on storage life and on marketability of fresh as well as processed products. Packaging fulfills several functions including containment, facilitating transportation, protection of fruit/vegetable from further damage, protection of environment from contents of package (for example, if the contents are dirty), marketing, product advertising, and stock control.

Introduction
 
The emerging functional foods market presents a considerable challenge to all manufacturers to keep abreast of the use of adequate packaging materials for their products. The interest in functional foods is intrinsically linked to the potential health benefits of their bioactive components. Preserving these bioactive components is, therefore, a crucial factor to providing the anticipated health benefits of functional foods. However, recurring failure in maintaining the quality of functional foods has been reported. Functional foods include a wide variety of products such as prebiotics and probiotics, dried foods (fibers, probiotics, tea, herbs, etc.), fermented products (yogurts, kefirs, vegetables), and fresh fruits and vegetables.

Introduction

Packaging is an integral and pervasive part of contemporary world. Packaging makes material handling convenient, economical and effortless and modern consumer marketing will seem virtually impossible without packaging. For an engineer or food scientist, packaging is specialized arrangement of matrices fabricated for the delivery of safe food products with maintaining high quality and food safety, at every step of distribution chain including procurement of raw material to manufacturing of finished product; packaging of product; storage; transportation and distribution to wholesaler, retailer and consumer and even for recycling operations [17].

Packaging of food is imperative in a world dominated by marketing-based economy The fact that 73% of purchase decisions are made at point of sale highlighted the importance of a good package design in marketing. During scanning of food package, consumer made quick and rapid perception about the inclusion of a particular food based on the various verbal and nonverbal attributes embodied on food package [25]. Designing is an indispensable are of food packaging. It is medium to attract potential buyers and distinguished the product from the competitors. The presence of visual attributes on package design will not only ameliorates the food product and glamorizes the packets but also defines its authenticity and peculiarity. Therefore, a quality package design is characterized as communication channel between the manufacture and consumer, and unless performed correctly the market image of the brand and product suffers and influence consumer’s perception.

Packaging machinery is a critical component in the food industry, enabling the efficient and consistent packaging of food products while maintaining safety, quality, and freshness. From automated filling and sealing systems to advanced inspection and labeling machines, packaging machinery plays a pivotal role in delivering food products to consumers in optimal condition. The machinery used in food packaging is designed to handle various product types, from solid and liquid foods to powders and granular items, each requiring specific handling, filling, and sealing techniques. In an industry where speed, hygiene, and precision are paramount, packaging machinery has evolved to include sophisticated features such as robotics, computer-controlled systems, and sensors that monitor critical parameters like weight, temperature, and fill levels. These innovations help manufacturers improve productivity, reduce waste, and ensure that food products meet regulatory standards and consumer expectations.

The choice of packaging materials is fundamental to the effectiveness, sustainability, and appeal of food packaging. Different materials offer distinct properties and functionalities, from providing a secure barrier against contaminants to enhancing convenience for consumers. Packaging materials are categorized based on their characteristics, including flexibility, rigidity, and barrier capabilities, each suited for particular types of food products and storage conditions. In recent years, there has also been a shift toward more sustainable materials, such as biodegradable and recyclable options, reflecting growing environmental concerns and regulatory pressures. This chapter explores the various types of packaging materials used in the food industry, examining their benefits, limitations, and applications. By understanding the unique properties of each material, we can better appreciate how they contribute to the protection, preservation, and presentation of food products.

India is the second largest producer of fruits However, the export potential of fruits and vegetables is very negligible. This is because of improper knowledge to the farmer about proper post-harvest infrastructure facilities. Fruits have a high-water content ranging from 70-95 per cent. They dry quickly under any normal atmospheric condition. These causes loss of rigidity and shrinkage of the cells cause wilting and shrivelling. Appropriate packaging ensures prolonged the shelf life of fruits and vegetables by preventing moisture loss and thereby wilting. Transportation is a critical phase in the fruit supply chain that can significantly affect the quality of fruits. Several factors during transportation can lead to quality degradation such as temperature/humidity fluctuations, mechanical damage, transit time etc. To mitigate the adverse effects of transportation on fruit quality, best practices ie, real-time monitoring, temperature and humidity control, loading/unloading techniques can be employed. Quality evaluation is a critical component in the fruit industry, encompassing a range of assessments to ensure fruits meet the desired standards for consumer satisfaction, shelf life, regulatory compliance, and market competitiveness. It involves a comprehensive approach that includes physical, chemical, and sensory assessments, supported by advanced technological tools, to maintain and enhance the quality of fruits throughout the supply chain. This book chapter deals with the effective packaging, transportation, and quality evaluation of fruits, ensuring that consumers receive fresh, high-quality produce.

INTRODUCTION

Packaging is an important aspect in modern life and in fact the word ‘packaging’ developed a literal value indicating presentation of an issue or material in a comprehensive and compact manner. Food packaging has become a revolutionary trend and plays a dominant role in the promotion of marketing of various fresh and processed food products. The reason could be a number of aspects inclusive of protective, legal and aesthetic elements. The industrial revolution in the late 18th century caused major impact on manufacturing process. Without appropriate packaging no food is acceptable and even in the common household food packaging is being practiced in its own way to render food safety and convenience for various culinary operations. Therefore, food packaging needs to be considered as an essential element of food processing and marketing and it is one of the key areas in food technology making rapid strides in research and development.

11.1. Introduction

Food packaging is the integral part of the food industry. Packaging may be defined as the enclosure of products, items or packages in a wrapped pouch, bag, box, cup, tray, can, tube, bottle or other container form to perform one or more of the following functions: containment, protection, preservation, communication, utility and performance. If the device or container performs one or more of these functions, it is considered a package. The major roles of the packaging of food are the containment and preservation of foods by protecting the food from physical, chemical and microbial spoilage. Besides, packaging performs some other functions like communication which means giving the information about the product, transportation of the food production and so on. Food products are classified as perishable, semi- perishable and non-perishable food based on the spoilage. Selecting appropriate packaging material and packaging technique for various food products like meat and poultry, fruits and vegetables, milk and milk products, bakery and confectionery and beverages is essential to maintain the quality of food product. Selection of the ideal packaging material for specific food requires prior knowledge about the packaging materials and its properties, type of the food products and specific spoilage mechanism of the particular food. Above all, from economical point of view, packaging material cost and capital for the establishment of the packaging technique also plays crucial role in selection of a particular packaging material or technique. 

Packaging : Packaging of fruits, vegetables, flowers or any other commodity is chiefly done to assemble the produce in convenient units of different sizes, shapes & types for storage, transportation, marketing and distribution. The size of units may vary depending on the requirement e.g for retail marketing smaller units are preferred and for bulk transportation and storage, large units would be more convenient.

Why do we Require Packaging?

Imagine there is no packaging material and technology available. How we are going to transport apple, mango etc. to distant markets? Definitely as loose. Then how can we weigh or count the fruits being transported or marketed? This would be very difficult. Had there been no packaging the commodity would have suffered great physical, chemical and microbiological losses. It would have been very difficult to handle, manage, transport and market the produce as loose and unpacked. Therefore, the packaging of fresh as well as processed commodities was needed to contain, unitize and protect the produce.

Introduction

Food and nutraceuticals are obtained from various agricultural resources available in this planet. Many types of bio-active compounds are available in small quantities in the plants and animals which are evidenced to improve performance of various organs, increase in immunity and cure for some diseases. Last decade evidences several advancements in developing phytochemical formulations which can be used as a cure for many diseases as well as helps in boosting immunity in human being. Such materials exist in different form, structure and chemical compositions. Examples of such chemicals are phenolic and organosulphur compound (Pascall 2011). The vegetables, fruits and seeds are used without further processing. Some plants are subjected to cooking before its consumption. Many industries are carried out extraction of bioactive compounds and developed products in the form of tablets, powders and liquids which are available in the market. In order to make commercial process more economic and feasible, long term storage of plant residues (Raw materials) as well as the prevention of the extracts emerges as essential requirement for the industries. Moreover, the products requires suitable packaging solution to increase its self-life, preventing it from the influences of environment, and to make viable solution for easy access which makes it more user-friendly. Suitable packaging solution is required for mainly the three reasons: (i) prevention. (ii) protection and (iii) presentation. Prevention is required in-order to avoid deterioration of the packaged items due to microbial growth, loss in moisture and enzymatic action. Protection is required for the purpose of protecting the packaging materials from the contamination as well as from the environment impact and rough handling. Presentation is equally important to provide it an aesthetic look to make it more approachable to the consumers. Moreover, packaging also offers “labelling for easy identification, warnings, instructions, and nutritional information, ease of transportation” (Pascall 2013).