eChapters

5.1 Introduction

Food is the basic requirement of every living being and it provides physical, mental as well as emotional satisfaction. Globally, there are many food enterprises which provide this basic necessity across the nations irrespective of nature of origin and climatic condition. Food companies are required to provide products at certain quality parameters so as to maintain the uniformity in the food system. Hence, food quality can be defined as a total of traits and criteria which characterize food as regard to its nutritional value, sensory value, convenience as well as the safety for a consumer’s health. Food quality is the quality characteristics of food that is acceptable to consumers. This includes external factors as appearance (size, shape, colour, gloss and consistency), texture, and flavor; factors such as grade standards and internal (chemical, physical, microbial). Due to the various food risks, all over the world the quality regulation authorities have intensified the efforts to improve food quality. Some of the quality related systems are obligatory by law while other is voluntary which are to be implemented by the various food chain members.

Many companies are forced to improve safety and quality of their products by implementing the quality and safety assurance and management system because of growing consumers’ expectations and concerns as regards food quality and safety.

In order to attain maximum profit and decrease the flaws, a new system was developed and followed by various companies all over the world. This new system is known as Six Sigma. The application of this system has the capability to reduce the losses considerably by reviewing the process parameters and increasing the profit exponentially. It constitutes a systematic approach to assure that food products have particular traits at any stage of production and distribution.

Macaroni: Pasta made from semolina and shaped in the form of slender tubes (Plate 396).

Macaroni wheat: It is tetraploid wheat and is preferred for making macaroni, vermicelli etc.

Macaroon: A small cookie composed chiefly of egg whites, sugar, and ground almonds or coconut (Plate 397).

Mace: An aromatic spice consisting of the dried external fibrous covering of a nutmeg (Plate 398).

Mach number: It is a number representing the ratio of the speed of a body (flow velocity) to the speed of sound (sonic velocity) in a surrounding medium (as air).

Macroglobulin: A highly polymerized globulin of high molecular weight.

Macronutrient: A chemical element (as nitrogen, phosphorus, or potassium) of which relatively large quantities are essential to the growth and health of a plant or a substance (as protein or carbohydrate) essential in large amounts to the growth and health of an animal.

8.1 Introduction

Electron Microscopes were developed due to the limitations of Light Microscopes which are limited by the physics of light to 500x or 1000x magnification and a resolution of 0.2 micrometers. In the early 1930’s this theoretical limit had been reached and there was a scientific desire to see the fine details of the interior structures of organic cells (nucleus, mitochondria etc.). This required 10,000x plus magnification which was just not possible using Light Microscopes. The Transmission Electron Microscope (TEM) was the first type of Electron Microscope to be developed and is patterned exactly on the Light Transmission Microscope except that a focused beam of electrons is used instead of light to see through the specimen. It was developed by Max Knoll and Ernst Ruska in Germany in 1931. The first Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM) debuted in 1942 with the first commercial instruments around 1965. Its late development was due to the electronics involved in scanning the beam of electrons across the sample. Electron microscope has been a valuable tool in the development of scientific theory and it contributed greatly to biology, medicine and material sciences. This wide spread use of electron microscopes is based on the fact that they permit the observation and characterization of materials on a nanometer (nm) to micrometer (µm) scale. Electron Microscopes are scientific instruments that use a beam of highly energetic electrons to examine objects on a very fine scale. This examination can yield information about the topography (surface features of an object), morphology (shape and size of the particles making up the object), composition (the elements and compounds that the object is composed of and the relative amounts of them) and crystallographic information (how the atoms are arranged in the object). A scanning electron microscope (SEM) is a type of electron microscope that produces images of a sample by scanning it with a focused beam of electrons. The electrons interact with atoms in the sample, producing various signals that can be detected and that contain information about the sample surface topography and composition. SEM can achieve resolution better than 1 nanometer. The combination of higher magnification, larger depth of focus, greater resolution, and ease of sample observation makes the SEM one of the most heavily used instruments in research areas today.

4.1 Introduction

A huge amount of waste in the form of liquid and solid is produced in the fruit and vegetable processing industry which causes pollution problem if not utilized or disposed off properly. Generally solid waste is dumped in local landfills, eaten and scattered by stray animals, which has now become a major cause of environmental pollution. The waste obtained from fruit processing industry is extremely diverse due to the use of wide variety of fruits and vegetables, the broad range of processes and the multiplicity of the product [79]. The solid waste from fruits and vegetables includes peel, stone, rag, seed, core etc is of economic value and can be used for manufacturing of various by-products [21]. The extent of the waste produced from processing industries of some of the important fruits and vegetables, is given in Table 1.

In India, utilization of fruits and vegetables for processing is hardly 1.8% of the total production. There were 5166 processing units till 1^st Jan, 2009 of fruits and vegetables products throughout the country. About 90% of these units are small scale units with annual production limit of 50-250 tonnes. These units have no organized methods of waste disposal. In certain places this waste is taken away by farmers for their disposal as cattle feed or field manure.

Abstract

Foam Mat Drying (FMD) is an economical alternative to drum, spray and freeze-drying for the production of food powders. The raw material is converted into stable foam by adding foaming agent through beating or whipping in presence or not of foam stabilizers, and dehydrated by different classical airflow and thermal means. A high-quality food powder attributes can be obtained by the proper selection of foaming method, foaming agents, foam stabilizers, time taken for foaming, suitable drying method and temperature. FMD can be used for large production of food powders because of its suitability for all types of food materials, rapid drying at lower temperature, retention of nutritive value and bioactive compounds, good reconstitution characteristics and flowability and cost-effective for producing powders.

In this chapter, basics of foam and its structure, mechanisms of foaming, types of foaming agents and stabilizers for the production of stable foam have been discussed. The influence of foaming agents, foaming properties, thickness of foam and drying temperature on the drying characteristics of mat are also studied. This chapter analyzes the application of foam drying process for different food materials, the microstructure and whole quality attributes of obtained powder, and the energy consumption and costs of FMD as well.

Technical and Economic Challenges in Advanced Packaging The implementation of advanced packaging technologies comes with a range of challenges. Technically, developing materials that are both highly effective and environmentally friendly is a complex task. Packaging must not only protect products and ensure their safety, but also minimize its ecological footprint. From an economic perspective, these advanced solutions tend to be more expensive, which can make it difficult for smaller businesses or those in cost-sensitive markets to adopt them on a large scale. Furthermore, the need for efficient production methods, scalable new materials, and affordable solutions continues to be a significant hurdle for the industry. Balancing Performance with Environmental Goals One of the primary challenges in packaging is achieving

CARBOHYDRATES AND SUGARS

Carbohydrates which include sugars and starches are among the most important of the food stuffs as well as the simplest of organic foods. They may be divided into three groups.

Group – I

Monosaccharides  : These are simple sugars that cannot be split into any simpler forms. The principal ones are glucose or dextrose, fructose and galactose. Glucose sometimes known as dextrose or grape sugar is found widely distributed in nature, especially in fruits and vegetables, and is one of the main constuents of honey.

It is in the form of glucose that sugar appears in the blood and is being burned continuously to produce energy. A certain amount of surplus glucose is absorbed from the digestive tract and stored in the liver as glycogen, which can be converted back into glucose when the need for more fuel arises. In the presence of yeasts, glucose undergoes fermentation and changes into alcohol.

Milk is the one food for which there seems to be no adequate substitute. It constitutes almost the entire diet for the young of all mammals. Each species produces milk that is especially adapted to the growth of its own young, but milk from one species may be used as food for others. Since animals were domesticated centuries ago, the milk from various species such as cow, buffalo, goat and camel, has been used in the diets of people throughout the world. Only cows milk is of commercial importance in the United States, although small amounts of goat’s milk are sold.

Whole cow’s milk is approximately 88 percent water, 5 percent carbohydrate, 3.5 percent protein and 3.3 percent fat. Its nutrient content varies from species to species, from breed to breed, seasonally and even from the beginning of the milking to the end of the process. In the United States it is cow’s milk that is used commonly as a beverage and in food preparation. Therefore the milk discussed throughout this chapter is cow’s milk.

Introduction

Export of quality seafood products is important to have a success in international marketing. Exporters must be quality conscious and the Governments must insist on quality control and inspection. The seafood export industry in India is over 50 years old. Seafood contributes 10% of the total exports and nearly 20% of all agricultural exports. In the year 2022-23, India exported 17,35,286 MT seafood to more than 100 countries worth US $8.09 billion equivalent to Rs. 63,969.14 crore. There are over 150 fish processing facilities approved by the European Union out of the existing 350 processing facilities. The Export Inspection Council and the Marine Products Export Development Authority are working very closely with the fish processing industries for the growth of seafood exports.

The Government of India enacted the Export (Quality Control and Inspection) Act, 1963 for the development of export trade through quality control and inspection. It empowers the Government to notify the products intended for compulsory quality control and inspection prior to their export. It specifies the type of quality control required for the notified products. It recognizes standard specifications for a notified product. It prohibits the export of notified products that are not complying with export conditions. It creates a machinery for quality control and take measures to protect markets for Indian commodities. As the first step, Export Inspection Council (the Council) was established on 1st January 1964 for implementation of various provisions of the Export (Quality Control & Inspection) Act, 1963.

INTRODUCTION

Food processing is necessary for the conversion of raw food products in to finished products with desired textural, sensory and nutritional attributes. This is required to be done mainly due to seasonal production and facilitating non-seasonal availability of different commodities. Stages of processing are primary and secondary. In primary processing raw material is converted into food commodities, while in secondary processing commodities are converted into edible products. Processing is mainly done to convert the products into edible forms, to extend shelf life, availability, accessibility and also to provide variety into the form of value added products. Processing of products destroys inhibitors, microorganisms, retards physico-chemical and biochemical deterioration, maintains good sensory properties, preserves and enhances the nutritive value. Unit operations involve phase changes and sometimes chemical reactions also, which are undesirable as they cause inferior quality of the product (Gekas 1992). Different processes like separation, assembly, preservation and packaging are broader classification for unit operations in food processing (Saravacos and Kostaropoulos 2002).

Introduction

Meat derived from animals are subjected to various contaminations from number of sources. The animal itself is a major contributor of both pathogenic and spoilage organisms. Further contamination may be introduced from water used, equipment used for product preparation, from the meat handlers and the surrounding environment. Microbiological problems such as food poisoning or spoilage may arise when the desired effect is not achieved and is usually due to errors in the handling or processing procedures. The detection and rapid correction of such errors and their future prevention is a major objective of any quality control system.

In traditional approach to meat and meat product quality control system, only the samples of the final product were analyzed by laboratory test to check for compliance with specifications. However, the responsibility for control of hazards rests with individuals involved in all stages from farm to ultimate consumer. And the control of hazards at each stages of food chain may be achieved by Hazard Analysis Critical control point (HACCP). Hazard analysis critical control point is an internationally recognized system that helps to ensure the manufacture of safe food products. HACCP is not a zero risk system but rather a system designated to minimize the risk of food safety hazards. HACCP concept is a systematic and rational approach Firstly by consideration of the hazards i.e., microorganisms or their toxins, that need to be controlled in a specific operation by structured hazard analysis and secondly on the identification of the most effective means of controlling the identified hazards. This system, by focusing attention on the factor that directly affects the microbiological safety and quality of meat foods, eliminates wasteful use of resources and superfluous consideration. As a consequence, the cost/benefit relationships are more favorable. The system is applicable at all levels of meat food chain from farm production through processing, transporting, merchandising and ultimate use in the meat food service establishment or at home. Ensuring food safety and quality is the responsibility of all links in the food chain. Now a day’s food consumers are very much health conscious and they want their food to be safe and of good quality. As meat being highly perishable and high risk food product, it is very much imperative on the part of meat and meat products producers and exporters to produce safe and quality meat to stand in the competitive world and further hygienic meat processing is important not only to provide safe and wholesome meat but to provide a good public image and to increase consumer demand.

Wheat Production and Consumption

Wheat, rice, maize, barley, sorghum and the millets are the main crops that provide nutrition to people worldwide. The production of grains in different countries depends on the various factors such as water availability, soil conditions, temperature, cultural and economical are most critical factors. Nutritional needs of the developing countries are more dependent on cereal grains compared to the developed ones. Approximately 60% of the calorie requirements in the developing countries are met from cereals. The International Grains Council (IGC) forecasted for total grains production in 2017-18 to 2.079 billion tonnes. There is a need to have major research to increase their productivity, reduce storage losses, enhance efficiency of processing and to ensure food safety in the entire supply chain. Among them, wheat is one of the most important crop species and is a staple food for about 35% of the world population. Wheat is unique among the grains because of its protein type, which when mixed with the water by mechanical forces yields into viscoelastic dough due to the formation of gluten. This unique property of dough is capable of retaining the gases which are produced by yeast or baking powder resulting in the production of an array of leavened products such as bread, cookie and cake.

Wheat is also an important source of dietary proteins for humans but like other cereals, it is deficient in the essential amino acid lysine. Wheat crop is adaptable to the wide range of growth conditions compared to other major cereals and hence it is cultivated widely throughout the world. Wheat cereal is the major dominating staple in the North Africa, Central and West Asia, providing the 50% of the calorie requirement in the region. The world wheat production is 740 million tonnes, with China ranking first by producing 125 million tonnes of wheat annually. Other major wheat producing countries are India, USA, Russia Australia, France and Canada. The global per capita consumption of wheat is about 66 kg, which varies widely in different regions. In Algeria, Egypt, Israel and other Middle East as well as Eastern Europe the consumption of wheat flour is high (150 kg/year). The food uses of wheat in developing countries are more than 80%, while in developed countries it is less than 50%. The consumption of the wheat in developing countries is significantly increasing due to globalization and growing economies. After rice, wheat is a major cereal crop in India and contributes to more than 50% of the total calories. It is grown in the cooler regions of India during the period of November to April. In grain production, rice ranks first with the production of about 105 million tonnes per year. In India, total grain production is 136 million tonnes for the year 2016-17 as per the International Grains Council. India ranks second in the production of wheat in the world and produce about 95 million tonnes annually. The bread wheat (astevum) contributes to approximately 94% while durum wheat is 4% and dicoccum wheat accounts to 2%.

The establishment of a technology transfer office is an important and complex process for an organization. It needs careful planning to ensure its long-term sustainability. Before establishing a TTO, it is essential to evaluate whether institution’s core mission includes research commercialization, and if the volume and quality of its research output justify the need for an inhouse TTO. For institutions that may not meet all criteria, those institutions can collaborate or outsource for TTO services. It is also important to decide about its operational scope, funding, management, and for what kind of issues the office should develop a policy. There is no “right” way to set up a TTO, but successful TTO does require considering some key issues. This chapter outlines key steps and considerations for establishing a TTO. It also explains what physical infrastructures are needed, manpower, outlines the responsibilities and powers of TTOs.
2.1 Evaluating the need for a TTO
Establishing a TTO is an important step for any research focused organization. But before initiating a planning process for a new TTO, the organization must review its relevance by considering a few fundamental points:
Key considerations for institutions
1. Is institution’s mission focused on “research commercialization” If an institute’s primary mission is education, or it does not support research it might not be justified to create a TTO. For such institutions, it usually makes better sense to seek alternative solutions to the occasional technology transfer without the expense of a formal office. But institutions with strong research commercialization focus, a TTO has the ability to contribute meaningfully to the mission. The Association of University Technology Managers (AUTM), USA has identified following key motivations for initiating academic technology transfer:

INTRODUCTION

Fruits and vegetables are historically important constituents of human diet and the growing awareness of consumers about the beneficial effects of these commodities could result in enhancement of global trade involving fresh and processed fruits and vegetables. Emergence of postharvest handling of fresh fruits and vegetables facilitated global trade of these commodities. The developed countries started realizing the export potential of these commodities by development of adequate value addition in terms of pretreatments, shelf life extension and packaging besides grading and other associated packing house operations. However, the trade concerning fresh fruits and vegetables could never come out completely from problems related to pesticidal residues, spoilage, bulkiness of the commodities involving transportation of inedible portions and excessive packaging costs arising out of bulkiness. The other problems associated with fresh produce include mandatory requirement of specific storage temperatures with refrigeration as the primary means of regulation of metabolic rate.

1.1. Introduction

The significance of milk as the most wholesome single food available in nature has never been debated. It is as ancient as mankind itself, as it is the substance created to feed the mammalian infant. All species of mammals, from the lowly rat to the mighty whale, produce milk for this purpose. Several centuries ago, perhaps as early as 6000-8000 BC, ancient man learned to domesticate species of animals for obtaining their milk for consumption. These included cows, buffalos, sheep, goats and camels, all of which are still used in various parts of the world for the production of milk for human use (Fig. 1.1 & 1.2).

INTRODUCTION

Packaging is an important aspect in modern life and in fact the word ‘packaging’ developed a literal value indicating presentation of an issue or material in a comprehensive and compact manner. Food packaging has become a revolutionary trend and plays a dominant role in the promotion of marketing of various fresh and processed food products. The reason could be a number of aspects inclusive of protective, legal and aesthetic elements. The industrial revolution in the late 18th century caused major impact on manufacturing process. Without appropriate packaging no food is acceptable and even in the common household food packaging is being practiced in its own way to render food safety and convenience for various culinary operations. Therefore, food packaging needs to be considered as an essential element of food processing and marketing and it is one of the key areas in food technology making rapid strides in research and development.

Milk, as secreted in the udder of a healthy animal is practically sterile, but during its transit to the processing plant, becomes heavily contaminated with a variety of micro-organisms. These may be responsible for spoilage of milk or for causing diseases in animals and human beings. It thus becomes imperative that adequate heat treatment is given to milk to destroy these micro-organisms, thus increasing the shelf-life of milk as well as making it safe. Varied heat treatments offer the potential of producing different kinds of processed milk to satisfy the needs of the consumer. To cater to the ever-increasing demand of consumers, several varieties of processed milk are available in the market, some of which are discussed below.

5.1. Pasteurised Milk

Pasteurisation was named after the renowned French scientist Louis Pasteur, who discovered that spoilage organisms could be inactivated in wine by applying heat at temperatures below its boiling point. The process was later applied to milk and remains the most important operation in the processing of milk.

It is the process by which every particle of milk is heated to such temperature-time combinations (usually to 63°C for not less than 30 minutes or to 72°C for not less than 15 seconds) and promptly cooled to 4°C or below so as to destroy any harmful bacteria that may be present without affecting flavour and food value. Pasteurisation does not involve the use of any additives. Apart from making milk safe to drink, pasteurisation increases the length of time it can be kept before it spoils. The nutrient losses due to pasteurisation are so small, that they are considered insignificant.

1. INTRODUCTION

Proteins are polymers of amino acids. Twenty different types of amino acids occur naturally in proteins. Proteins differ from each other according to the type, number and sequence of amino acids that make up the polypeptide backbone. Proteins are the important constituents of foods for a number of reasons. They are a major source of energy, as well as containing essential amino-acids, like lysine, tryptophan, methionine, leucine, isoleucine and valine which are essential to human health, but which the body cannot synthesize. Proteins are also the major structural components of many natural foods, often determining their overall texture, e.g., tenderness of meat or fish products. Isolated proteins are often used in foods as ingredients because of their unique functional properties, i.e., their ability to provide desirable appearance, texture or stability.

Proteins are complex organic molecules made up of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen. Most proteins also contain sulphur and phosphorus and also play an important role in food preparation. The final quality of many food products are influenced by how the proteins are treated while food is being prepared.

Introduction

Food is a culture, emotion, hospitality and prestige which is closely knitted with tradition. Traditional knowledge is a community based functional knowledge system which is developed, preserved and refined by generations through continuous interaction, observation and experimentation with their surrounding environment. It includes beliefs, values, and practices gathered from the practical experience of older generation, and its whole function is survival and development of culture of people. Traditional foods, originated from ancestral kitchens are developed through ages, invented, modified, utilised and evolved to improve nutritional and social wellbeing of the people around the world. Most of them are culture specific, region specific, environment specific, community specific and season specific. These foods are socially, culturally and economically important and provide food security, enhance livelihood and improve nutritional and social wellbeing of people. Food culture arises out of the place of a people’s origin and so traditional local foods hold the potential to bind and stabilise communities and enable a cultural continuity through conserving their histories. Indian cuisine is represented as a wide spectrum of food cultures with distinctive regional differences and preferences (Achaya, 1998).

6.1. Introduction

Food packaging has a significant contribution in preserving the quality of the food throughout the processing and storage. The package containing food should maintain the quality of the product for the longest time under particular environmental conditions. The quality of various food and beverages decline with the passage of time and food become unacceptable to consume. The time in which food deteriorates and become unacceptable is termed as shelf-life. The degradation of quality with time under storage conditions depends upon intrinsic as well as extrinsic factors. The shelf-life study of a product provides important information to manufacturer and consumer regarding the quality of the food product throughout the storage time.