eChapters

Introduction

Oils and fats are the major class of compounds in lipids. Oils and fats are essential nutrients in both human and animal diets and produced from plant, animal, marine and microbial sources. Dietary oils and fats are concentrated sources of metabolizable energy (9 kCal/gram) compared to protein or carbohydrates (4 kCal/g). According to the recommendations of Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) of the United Nations, the maximum total fat intake for adults is 30 to 35% E (total energy calories). The minimum fat intake recommended is 15% E for most individuals and 20% E for women of reproductive age and for malnourished populations (FAO, 2010).The current dietary guidelines for optimal health and prevention of diet-related chronic diseases like diabetes, coronary heart disease (CHD), cancer and obesity emphasize the importance of both the quantity and quality of total fat in the diet. In addition to the caloric and nutritional value, oils and fats exhibit many functional properties in the diet. Oils and fats enhance the value of foods by releasing the flavours of other food components, provide texture, increase palatability of food, and impart the feeling of satiety after eating. Oils and fats provide essential fatty acids (omega 3 and 6) which are the building blocks for several metabolic pathways for the healthy life. Oils and fats are excellent carriers of fat-soluble vitamins A, D, E and K, and the absorption of these vitamins is impaired at very low-fat intakes. Due to this reason, sseveral countries have started using edible oils and fats as a suitable vehicle for the fortification of vitamin A and D as edible oils are consumed by almost everyone (Diosady and Krishnaswamy, 2018). Oils and fats are structural bodily components, and are involved in vital physiological processes, including growth, development, inflammation, and brain function. Lipoproteins are important cellular constituents, occurring both in the cell membrane and mitochondria, and also serving as the means of transporting lipids in the blood. Oils and fats are responsible for making biological membranes such as phospholipids and cholesterol, vital for making the cell membranes. Most of the edible oils contain several minor constituents which are known as potent nutraceutical constituents with several health benefits. In addition to edible purpose, oils and fats are being used in many industrial applications such as soaps, detergents, cosmetics, lubricants, specialty chemicals, biofuels, etc. Hence oils and fats are indispensable source for food (edible oils and nutraceuticals), fuel (biodiesel, lubricants etc.) and fabulous chemicals (oleochemicals).

Pineapple is a tropical plant with edible multiple fruit consisting of coalesced berries. It is named after pine cone due its resemblance with its structure. It is the most economically important plant in the family of Bromeliaceae. It is widely grown throughout the world for its dual-purpose use in the form of fresh fruit and many processed products. It is a tropical fruit having excellent taste, juiciness, aroma and flavour which is preferred by many people. It is also rich source of fibre, potassium and vitamin C, vitamin B1 and vitamin B6. One of the important constituents in the fruit is proteolytic enzyme bromelein which is known to have significant use in treating conditions like inflammation, sinusitis, arthritis and early recovery from surgery (Joy, 2010). Bromelein is a digestive enzyme also used as meat tenderizer. Pineapple is cultivated in an area of 106.22 thousand ha and total production is 1,527.93 thousand tons (APEDA). Major producing states of pineapple were West Bengal, Assam and Karnataka. Pineapple is highly perishable fruit which transpires heavily and lose moisture thus have high susceptibility to spoilage microorganism (Hossain and Bepary, 2015). There are often several difficulties in production of pineapple with its physiologically active state even after harvest and non climacteric nature. Even though production is more, there are enormous post harvest losses for the fruit. The overall losses being encountered constitute 32.12 percent (6.82% at farm level, 3.09% at wholesale market and transportation, 5.44 % at retail market level, 5.64% during storage, 4.31% in processing unit and 6.82% at consumer level respectively) as reported by Ningobam, (2019).

Introduction

Fruits and vegetables (F&V) are good sources of phytochemicals like carotenoids, phenolics, dietary fibers, minerals and vitamins and are considered as important components of a healthy diet. These bioactive compounds in fresh F&V have been linked to delay in onset of many diseases including cardiovascular, chronic and other non-communicable diseases. WHO reported an approximate 3.9 million deaths all over the world in 2017 due to insufficient consumption of F&V (WHO, 2019). Hence, health advisors and nutritionists recommend inclusion of fresh fruits and vegetables to complement the daily diet, and WHO recommends the consumption of a minimum of 400g F&V daily in five portions. However, beneficial raw F&V may contain pathogenic microorganisms, such as Salmonella, E. coli, and Listeria that can pose threat to consumer safety. Since fruits and some of the vegetables are eaten raw, there are chances that pathogenic microorganisms may also enter food chain. Nearly a half of food borne illnesses in United States are caused by microbes on fresh produce (CDC, 2019). The F&V are handled by producers, dealers, wholesalers, retailers and several intermediaries, and therefore, are at greater risk of possible contamination till it reaches the consumer.

The ever increasing demand for F&V has led to overexploitation of pesticides usage in the farms, leading to harmful pesticide residues in air, soil, water and on the F&V surfaces. Thus, it is imperative to maintain the quality and safety of F&V all through the supply chain. In this chapter, we discuss various pre and postharvest factors affecting the quality and safety of F&V, storage techniques to extend shelf life and reduce the safety threat as well as methods available for microbial and pesticide decontamination of fresh F&V.

3.1. Introduction

Paper and paper-based packaging is the traditional form of packaging used for various food products due to its various advantageous characteristics. It is less expensive, flexible, lightweight, durable, recyclable and available in various shapes, sizes and colour to meet customer needs. Hence it occupies a vast market in food packaging from primary (i.e., packaging which is first used after manufacture) to secondary (i.e. processing aids of primary packages) packaging and the production of paper has doubled in the last three decades. In the year 2020, china was the leading producer for paper and paper based packaging followed by USA and Japan (Figure 1).

1. Introduction

Celiac disease (CD) is an immune-mediated enteropathy triggered by the ingestion of gluten in genetically susceptible individuals. Gluten is the protein component in wheat, rye and barley. In the last 10 years, cutting edge scientific developments in this disease have led to the formulation of new concepts of epidemiology, pathophysiology and clinical manifestations. At present, the only available treatment for CD is a strict gluten-free diet (GFD) (Mulder et al., 2013; Theethira and Kelly, 2014). Until recently, the geographical distribution of CD was mostly restricted to Europe and other developed countries, such as the United States, Canada and Australia. Celiac disease is not only frequent in developed countries, but it is increasingly found in areas of the developing world, such as North Africa (Malekzadeh et al., 2005), Middle East (Rostami et al., 2004) and India (Basu et al., 2014, Deora et al., 2014; Yachha and Poddar, 2007). New epidemiological studies have brought evidence that this disorder is common in many developing countries as well, showing that the ‘global village of celiac disease’ has indeed a worldwide distribution (Fasano and Catassi, 2001).

The only available treatment for celiac disease is the strict, lifelong avoidance of gluten. When gluten is removed from the diet, the small intestine will start to heal and overall health should improve (Fasano and Catassi, 2001). Traditional substitutes for gluten-containing grains have been rice, tapioca, corn, and potato. However, more nutrient-dense grains, seeds, nut flours, and legumes are being incorporated into the diet to provide an enhanced palatability, variety, and nutritional quality. These include sorghum, millet, teff, quinoa, amaranth, flax seed, and buckwheat.

1. Introduction

1.1 Engineered health rice

Rice is one of the leading food crops in the world and sustains two-third of the world’s population providing 20% of the world’s dietary energy supply. It can be polished and marketed as white rice or can be marketed with the bran layer left intact as brown rice. The dry grain can then be steamed or boiled by the consumer to rehydrate and cook it (Kato, 2006). Despite its primary importance as a staple food, rice has several disadvantages. Primarily, rice is low in protein and high in starch. The low protein levels in rice can lead to protein malnutrition in societies where rice is the primary constituent of the diet. Deficiencies in essential amino acids may also result from a diet primarily comprised of rice. For example, lysine is the essential amino acid found in the lowest quantity in rice. The human body needs lysine for proper growth and repair of tissues. It is also important in the production of various enzymes, hormones and disease-fighting antibodies (Kato, 2006). The production of broken rice is nearly 15-20% of total production of rice (Bhullar and Bhullar, 2013). The broken rice is generally used for rice flour production and Indian traditional foods such as Idli, Dosa and weaning foods etc. Ugwu et al., (2012) reported that the rice broken can be utilized for the production of poly (3-hydroxybutyrate). The major value addition of broken rice is possible by reconstructing it into rice-shape and fortifying it with desired nutrients or micronutrients, which is a big challenge in terms of making the product acceptable to the consumers.

One approach to overcome the above mentioned challenges is to prepare artificial rice kernels or rice analogues by extrusion, in which the vitamins are embedded and consequently do not separate from the rice grains. This will utilize mainly the broken rice which is either discarded or sold at subsidized prices as the cattle feed. Furthermore, embedding makes extraction of the vitamin by rinsing or cooking more difficult and may provide a certain protection against oxidation, because the vitamins can be enveloped by a protective matrix (Steiger, 2010). The fortification of commercially produced staple foods allows exposed populations to benefit without making major changes to their eating habits (Kunz, 2009).The rice analogues prepared from extrusion can be used by addition of an appropriate proportion of water at a temperature ranging from 90°C-100°C, whereupon the rice product rehydrates within three minutes to obtain a product having the desired appearance and organoleptic properties to simulate natural rice grains (Harrow and Martin, 1982).

1. Introduction

1.1 Malnutrition

The term malnutrition generally refers both to under nutrition and over nutrition, but in this guide we use the term to refer solely to a deficiency of nutrition. Many factors can cause malnutrition, most of which relate to poor diet or severe and repeated infections, particularly in underprivileged populations. Inadequate diet and disease, in turn, are closely linked to the general standard of living, the environmental conditions, and whether a population is able to meet its basic needs such as food, housing and health care. Malnutrition is thus a health outcome as well as a risk factor for disease and exacerbated malnutrition, and it can increase the risk both of morbidity and mortality (Ogunrinade, 2014). A term used to refer to any condition in which the body does not receive enough nutrients for proper function. A person cannot properly digest or absorb nutrients from the food they consume, as may occur with certain medical conditions (Medicine, 2015). Malnutrition may range from mild to severe and life-threatening. It can be a result of starvation, in which a person has an inadequate intake of calories, or it may be related to a deficiency of one particular nutrient (for example, vitamin C deficiency).

Malnutrition is estimated to contribute to more than one third of all child deaths, although it is rarely listed as the direct cause. Lack of access to highly nutritious foods, especially in the present context of rising food prices, is a common cause of malnutrition. Poor feeding practices, such as inadequate breast feeding, offering the wrong foods, and not ensuring that the child gets enough nutritious food, contributes to malnutrition (WHO, 2015).

Pooled estimates report the prevalence of malnutrition among community-dwelling older adults of 6% and among hospitalized older adults of 39%. In developed countries, treatment of malnutrition is relatively inexpensive and effective: energy and protein supplementation using commercial “sip feeds” results in both weight gain and reduced mortality (Pereira et al., 2015). In 2013, one in four children under age five worldwide had stunted growth. Between 2000 and 2013, stunting prevalence globally declined from 33 to 25 %, and the number of children affected fell from 199 million to 161 million. In 2013, about half of all stunted children lived in Asia and over one third in Africa (UNICEF, 2015). Malnutrition may be several types as follows:

1. Introduction

Each day, millions of people take a small bag, drop it into a cup, pour in boiling water, and add a dash of milk plus a spoonful of sugar. People start the day with it, end the day with it, and also serve it socially or in times of distress (Herath and De Silva, 2011). The reason behind its popularity is based on the fact that the combination of theanine amino acid contained in tea and melatonin and B-complex vitamins contained in milk offers superior relaxing effects. Furthermore, the harmony of tea’s sweet aroma and milk’s natural sweetness will create a healthy low calorie drink.

Tea is one of the most pleasant drinks consumed by two third of the world’s population. It is not only the most popular and one of the oldest known beverages in the world but also an antioxidative agent available in everyday life which may help to prevent a wide variety of diseases such as cancers and heart diseases (Yang and Landau, 2000; Luczaj and Skrzydlewska, 2005). Tea provides a significant source of phenolic compounds in the diet. While polyphenols have long been of interest for their contribution to the astringenttaste of teas (Ding et al., 1992), research into the health benefits of tea has been actively pursued only in more recent times (Dufresne and Farnworth, 2001; Yamamoto et al., 1997). Even though the results are mixed for the relationship between tea and health in epidemiological and clinical studies, in vitro studies point to a range of mechanisms by which tea phenolics may help to offset chronic diseases such as cancer and cardiovascular diseases (Kris-Etherton and Keen, 2002).

The nutritional richness and the high biological value of dairy milk have made it an important constituent of the balanced human diet. It is associated with better growth, improved status of some micronutrients, cognitive performance, motor development and activity. It is composed of a mixture of nutritive components as well as other bioactive factors such as biogenic amines, conjugated linoleic acid (CLA), with relevant physiological benefits. The consumption of dairy milk and products exert a protective action in human health and have been confirmed in preventing several chronic conditions like cardiovascular diseases (CVDs), some forms of cancer, obesity, immunomodulation and diabetes (Pereira, 2014). The chemical composition of bovine milk consists of 87% water, 4% to 5% lactose, 3% protein, 3% to 4% fat, 0.8% minerals, and 0.1% vitamins (Pereira, 2014).

1. Composition of Milk Fat

Bovine milk contains about 3.5 to 5% total lipid, existing as emulsified globules 2 to 4 μm in diameter and coated with a membrane, casein. The composition of milk fat is somewhat complex. Triglycerides constitute approximately 98% of milk fat, which is found in the milk globule, with the remainder being made up of di- and monoglycerides, phospholipids, cerebrosides, cholesterol, vitamins, tocopherols, carotene, and flavor components. Phospholipids are about 0.5 to 1% of total lipids, and sterols are 0.2 to 0.5%. These are mostly located in the milk fat globule membrane (Jensen et al., 1991). Cholesterol is the major sterol at 10 to 20 mg/dL.

Introduction

Improvement of wheat grain quality depends on the knowledge of quality requirements of different end-use products and the genetic components controlling different quality traits. In previous chapters we have dealt in-depth with quality requirements of different end-use products and their genetic components. Depending upon the goal of quality improvement, different strategies are adopted to improve wheat quality. It depends upon the number of genes controlling the traits as well as the availability of the simple methods for phenotyping the traits especially during early segregating generations. In addition stability analysis of the traits across the environments is essential before we go for breeding. Constraints in time, cost, and sample availability usually necessitate the use of predictive tests during early generations, followed by milling and baking tests on advanced lines that have met a number of agronomic, disease and predictive quality criteria. Knowledge of germplasm lines having specific quality traits is needed to initiate breeding for the improvement of wheat grain quality for different end-use products. The quality requirements of different major end-use products are provided in the following table (Table 1).

Introduction

Maize (Zea mays, or corn as it is known in some countries) is the principal cereal crop in tropical and subtropical regions throughout the world. The increasing use of maize as a staple food reflected the much higher yields per hectare, compared with wheat, rye and barley. Because maize was cheap, it became the dominant food and main source of dietary energy and protein for poor people, particularly those in rural and underprivileged segments of society. Maize is considered to be a native of the Americans. There are different views about the introduction of maize in India. One view is that maize was introduced into India by the Portuguese during the seventh century. Other view is that maize was introduced in Pre-Colombian era through the Atlantic Arabian trade route. This is supported by the more recent variability that has been observed in the maize collections made from the north eastern Himalayan region. However, the historic records regarding the cultivation of maize in India date back only to the Maratha Empire.

Abstract

The interest in the utilization of industrial by-products is increasing day by day and is major reason for exploring different meat, poultry and fish industry waste and optimization of extracting conditions of different valuable compounds. Utilization of these by-products in effective manner can be positive for meat industry economy as well as environmental pollution of the country. Besides the potential revenue losses, non-utilized or underutilized by-products accounts for the extra cost for their disposal. Meat producers are converting these by-products into value added edible and inedible form. Among the most prominent current uses of meat, poultry and fish waste are food ingredients, water treatment, cosmetic and personal care products, biogas/biodiesel, biomedical and pharmaceutical application. Several studies have dealt with the production of several value-added products such as gelatin, collagen, enzymes, specific proteins, bioactive peptides, chitin, chitosan, and pigments fro m the meat industries waste. Recently, in the food and pharmaceutical industry, an increasing number of new applications have been found for products generated from meat, poultry and fish industry waste; in different products as foaming agents, emulsifiers, biodegradable film-forming materials, colloid stabilizers, and microencapsulating agents, in line with the growing trend to replace synthetic agents with more natural ones.

Labelling is a critical component of food regulation, consumer communication, traceability, and brand credibility. This chapter examines the regulatory requirements governing ice cream and frozen dessert labelling in India, with emphasis on FSSAI standards and declarations. It explains the distinction between product standards and label declarations and introduces systems for managing recipe masters, nutrition information, label copy, artwork, and packaging approvals. Mandatory declarations, ingredient information, allergen declarations, nutritional information, claims, and common labelling errors are considered. The chapter also identifies departmental responsibilities and best practices for label compliance. Proper regulatory control ensures accurate consumer information, reduces legal risk, and supports consistent packaging and commercial operations.

Ice cream is an emotional as well as a technical product, often associated with happiness, celebration, indulgence, family experiences, and personal enjoyment. This chapter explores the principles of brand building and marketing strategy in the ice cream industry. It explains the difference between a product, label, and brand and examines consumer understanding, product quality, packaging, pricing, visibility, trade marketing, distribution, and innovation. The chapter also addresses launch strategies for new brands and the role of leadership in building long-term brand equity. A successful ice cream brand must combine a clear consumer promise with consistent product quality, availability, attractive presentation, efficient distribution, and memorable consumer experiences.

Practical case studies provide a direct connection between technical knowledge and the real-world challenges faced by ice cream manufacturers and managers. This chapter brings together applied situations involving formulation, overrun, texture, freezing, storage, cold-chain management, production losses, changeovers, product launches, market returns, profitability, and operational decision-making. Each case encourages readers to identify symptoms, determine probable causes, evaluate technical and commercial consequences, and develop corrective actions. The cases demonstrate that ice cream performance depends on the interaction of formulation, processing, quality, equipment, distribution, consumer expectations, and business strategy. The chapter is particularly valuable for students, technologists, entrepreneurs, managers, consultants, and industry professionals seeking practical problem-solving skills.

Importance of Fruits and Vegetables in Human Life

Fruit is the edible, and more or less juicy, product of a tree or plant and consist of the matured ovary including its seeds and adjacent parts. Usually fruits are sweet, with a wide range of flavours, colours and textures.

Composition

Fruits are very poor source of protein and fat. Avocado is the exception containing 28% fat. Fruits contain high amount of moisture hence they are highly perishable. They are also good source of fiber. Fruits are not very good sources of calories. Fruits like bananas give fairly good amount of calories. Ripe fruit contains a higher percentage of sugar than unripe fruit does and the sugar is chief in the form of sucrose, fructose and glucose. Generally fruits are poor source of iron, Mangoes are excellent source of carotenes. Oranges are fairly good source of beta carotene. Guavas are the best source of vitamin C. Citrus fruits are good source of vitamin C. Cashew fruits are inexpensive and rich in vitamin C, although there is variation of vitamin content from fruit to fruit most fruits in the raw state contain some ascorbic acid. If fruits are bruised, peeled, cooked or exposed to air, large amounts of the vitamin may be oxidized. Apples are not only expensive; they contribute little to the nutritive value. They give fiber to the diet.

Introduction

Food adulteration compromises quality of foods and causes human health hazards is a menace mankind had been facing since ages. Spice adulteration scandals in the year 2004, Horse gate scandal in Europe during 2013 are famous examples of food fraud. Various forms of food adulteration and cheating such as substitution of cheaper food components in place of original product, addition of non-permitted substances, and false claims by misbranding or mislabeling are prevalent from time immemorial (Spink et al 2019).

Introduction
Plantation crops are high-value industrial crops grown in the tropics and coastal areas. They have great potential for utilization of wasteland like rainfed dry land, hilly, arid, and coastal areas to provide nutritional security; earn foreign exchange, and ensure livelihood security. The major plantation crops grown in India are tea (Camellia sinensis L), coffee (Coffea arabica L.), rubber (Havea brasiliensis), coconut (Cocos nucifera), areca nut (Areca catechu L.), oil palm (Elaeis guinensis), cashew nut (Anacardium occidentale L.) and cocoa (Theobroma cacao L.). India is the leading producer of most of
these plantation crops. Among all fruit crops, processing plays an important role in plantation crops as they are generally consumed only after processing. In addition to primary products, some by-products from these crops also have various commercial uses. Coconut, areca nut, cashew nut, black pepper, and cardamom are known as smallholder plantations whereas, crops like rubber, tea, and coffee are known as estate crops or conventional plantation crops. Processing aspects of some of these crops are discussed here:

Different basic as well as advanced laboratory equipment need to be used in a laboratory while conducting experiments. Many of them like pH meter, laminar air-flow hood, viscometer, thermometer, magnetic stirrer, microwave ovens, incubators, sand-bath, water-bath, oil-bath, etc. are the basic and simple equipment which require to be used routinely while conducting experiments in a laboratory. However, basic knowledge of their operation, handling procedure, when to be used, how to be used, and more importantly what not to be done with it, etc. are essential for keeping them in serviceable condition as well as for the accuracy/precision in their operation. In this chapter, we will discuss about some of the routinely used laboratory equipment along, while some other sophisticated equipment will be discussed in other chapters.

pH Meter

A pH meter measures exactly the H+ concentration of a solution; thus indicates acidity or alkalinity of a solution with greater precision. Actually, it measures the difference in electrical potential between a pH electrode and a reference electrode, and display the results converted into the corresponding pH value. Electrode is the key part (rod-like structure, usually made of glass) of a pH meter, having a bulb at the bottom containing a sensor. The pH meters range from simple and inexpensive pen-like devices (portable/pocket pH meter) to complex and expensive laboratory instruments with computer interface (Figure 5.1).

Frequent calibration of a pH meter using the solutions of known pH (standard solution of pH 4.01, 7.00, 10.01, Figure 5.2), generally before each use, ensures the accuracy of the instrument. For very precise work the pH meter should be calibrated before each measurement. For normal use calibration should be performed at the beginning of each day. This is necessary because the glass electrode does not give a reproducible measurement over a longer period of time.

C - enamel can: The sulphur resistant lacquer is golden coloured and the can coated with it are called C-enamel can or sulphure resistant can, used for packing non acid products (Plate 35).

CA storage: Storage of commodities under gaseous atmosphere like gas storage, where the composition of atmosphere is controlled accurately. MA and CA differ only in degree of control and CA is more exact. These storage methods in combination with refrigeration markedly enhance storage life of fruit and vegetables (Plate 36).