eChapters

SYNOPSIS

We lag in nutritional awareness. The therapeutic values of plant foods, such as vegetables, fruits, grains, legumes, nuts, seeds, herbs, spices and other foods like dairy products, fluids and meats are to be brought to light. The values of important nutrients, may lead to the basis for nutritional education lacking at present. There is need to bring awareness and add to the knowledge of the younger generation. A food is something that provides nutrients. Nutrients are substances that provide: energy for activity, growth, and all functions of the body such as breathing, digesting food, and keeping warm; materials for the growth and repair of the body, and for keeping the immune system healthy.

5.0. Introduction

Quality control is generally defined as the regulation by law of food manufacture, distribution and sale in order to prevent health hazards and fraud to the consumers. Thus, it becomes a criminal offence to sell adulterated, filthy or contaminated foods. Quality control is the scientific control of production. There are certain basic fundamentals which are required for successful running of the food processing industry. So, for successful quality control in an industry / organization certain management systems are needed. Depending upon consumer requirement and satisfaction, quality management system is based on four important pillars like management responsibility, resource management, product / service realization and measurement, analysis & improvement. This management system is also important for ISO certification in an organization / industry.

India is the largest producer of pulses and contributes around 25% of total global pulse production. In addition, it is also world’s biggest consumer (27% of world consumption) and importer (14%) of pulses in the world. Pulses account for around 20 per cent of the area under food grains and contribute around 7-10 per cent of the total food grains production in India. Though, pulses are grown in both Kharif and Rabi seasons, Rabi pulses contribute more than 60 per cent of the total production. Gram is the most dominant pulse having a share of around 40 per cent in the total production followed by tur/arhar at 15 to 20 per cent and urad and moong at around 8-10 per cent each. Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh and Karnataka are the top five pulses producing states in India. Considering the nutritional importance of pulses and its products in Indian diet, the production and availability are not sufficient. Since independence, grain production has grown dramatically but pulses production and its availability have declined. On the other hand, the per capita availability of cereal and millets has increased in spite of a four-fold increase in population. The consumption ratio of cereal-to-pulse has risen from 6:1 to 12:1.

Pulse processing is the major need of developing nations as it is the most acceptable and cheap source of protein and hence can help combating Protein Energy Malnutrition (PEM). In addition, the identification and recognition of various newer and improved processing methods can provide the basis for further development of legume processing industry. Traditionally, home cooking is applied for consumption of pulses since ages. Modernization has no doubt created a lot of ease and developed various techniques to make different edible forms of legumes/pulses. Many advancements have been happened in traditional processing methods (milling, fermentation, roasting, boiling, steaming etc). and resulted into new products. Improved techniques for efficient milling of legumes into dhal (dehusked splits) are an important area of investigation. A systematic method that eliminates wastes and losses has great significance in the Indian dietary pattern. New systems for processing legumes come under several main categories, namely, improved decortications and milling techniques; quick-cooking pulses; canned pulses; pulse flakes, expanded snack foods etc. Such new and innovative processing technologies presented in this chapter can be applied and used in developing nations. Present chapter will discuss both traditional and non-traditional means of pulse processing.

Introduction

Quality is the ultimate criterion of the desirability of any food product to the consumer. Overall quality depends on quantity, nutritional and other hidden attributes along with sensory quality. Sensory quality is of great importance to both processors and consumers, since it attracts consumers; it satisfies consumers’ aesthetics and gustatory sense. Sensory quality is the combination of sensory senses of perception responsible for choosing and eating a food.

According to Institute of Food Technologists and the American Society for Testing and Materials, sensory evaluation is a scientific method used to evoke measure, analyze, and explain those responses to products as perceived through different senses like sense of sight, smell, touch, taste, and hearing (Stone and Sidel, 2004). Sensory evaluation gives a general rule for the preparation and serving of samples under controlled conditions so that unfair decisions are minimized. People for sensory evaluation are often placed in individual test booths so that the judgments they give are true and do not reflect the opinions of those around them.

Samples with random numbers are given to the evaluators so that they do not form judgments based upon labels, but rather on their sensory experiences. Products may be given in different orders to each evaluator to help measure and to ensure internal validity by controlling the potential confounds created by sequence and order effects. To control unwanted variation and to improve test precision, standard procedures may be established for sample temperature, volume, and spacing in time, as needed.

Sensory evaluation or testing is a quantitative science in which numerical data are collected to establish lawful and specific relationships between product characteristics and human perception. Sensory methods draw heavily from the techniques of behavioural research in observing and quantifying human responses. For example, we can assess the proportion of times people are able to discriminate small product changes or the proportion of a group that expresses liking for one product over another. Another example is having people generate numerical responses reflecting their perception of products taste and smell.

Weaning foods

Introduction

Breast milk is natural and best for the growth and development of newborn babies. Although breast milk is adequate to provide an optimum nutrient till the age of six months but after that it is not sufficient to sustain optimum growth and fulfill their nutritional requirements. Various nutrients are required to supplement milk until child is ready to eat adult meal. This additional food along with the breast milk is referred as “complementary Food”. With adequate amount of complementary feeding breast-feeding continues up to two years of age and beyond so, referred as complementary feeding period.

Appropriate and adequate amount of complementary feeding helps in preventing malnutrition stunting and promoting growth. Introduction of this complementary food is called as weaning.

Weaning is the process of introducing adult food and beverage to the infant to support their growth and development. This is very crucial period in infant’s life. This is a period for diet transition as the nutrition requirements for growth and brain development is quite high. Introduction of various taste and texture promotes biting and chewing skills (Guthrie, 1975). Most six-month age children start eating semisolid foods. Weaning homogenized infant foods play a major role in the nutrition of infants (Martinez, 2004).As infants grow, their nutritional requirements also increase. To keep up this growing demand WHO recommends that infants start eating solid, semi-solid or soft foods at the age of 6 months to ensure sufficient nutrient intake.

Abstract

Drying is an age old practice of food preservation. Removal of moisture from the food materials is usually carried out at atmospheric pressure and elevated temperature. In the presence of oxygen, drying can cause oxidation of some compounds leading to quality deterioration. Drying at higher temperature adds to the losses and can be responsible for enzymatic and non enzymatic browning, loss of aroma, nutrients, antioxidants, pigments etc. On the other hand, drying under sub atmospheric pressure helps in retaining the themosensitive compounds present in natural foods as drying can be accomplished in oxygen free environment. Under vacuum, evaporation of moisture can be possible at lower temperatures.

1. Introduction

The chemical composition of a food is of utmost importance from many standpoints, including nutrition, safety, and stability to microbiological, chemical or physical changes. Analysis of these food components is required to provide nutrition labelling for informing the health-conscious consumer, for quality assurance during processing and storage, and for regulatory purposes. The methodology used in analysis will depend on the particular component and the nature of product being analyzed, the purpose of the analysis, and the availability of resources. The emphasis of this chapter is on understanding the principles, procedures and calculations involved in estimating a particular component in fruits, vegetables and their products.

Abstract

Packaging plays an important role in the food processing Industry. It makes food more convenient as well as gives the food greater safety assurance from microorganisms, biological and chemical changes such that the packed foods can have longer shelf life. In order to meet the huge demand of processed food with longer shelf life, various methods of preservation and packaging are being used in the food processing industry. Drying and dehydration is one of the method which helps preservation of a perishable commodity against deterioration or spoilage.

Introduction

Fermentation is the process in which edible microorganisms invade food substrates and convert them into fermented foods including beverages, using their enzymatic and metabolic processes. These end products will have nontoxic flavors, aroma and texture which enhance the palatability. The word “fermentation” is originated from a Latin word fermentare, defined as “to leaven” (Frias et al., 2016). It is one of the oldest food processing technologies used by humans to preserve perishable food materials for long time, dated back to ancient human civilization (Hutkins, 2008). Globally, more than 5000 varieties of fermented foods are currently in use which includes traditionally fermented dairy products such as Dahi in India to industrial production of wines from fruits (Tamang, 2010) (Table 1 and Figure 1). Biochemically, fermentation is a metabolic process in which energy is derived from organic compounds without the involvement of an exogenous oxidizing agent. Fermentation may result in the production of many by-products such as carbon dioxide, alcohol, organic acids (lactic acid, acetic acid), vitamins, enzymes etc. which are now having more importance in food industries (Caplice and Fitzgerald 1999).

Introduction

Cereals are grown over 73% of the total world harvested area and contribute over 60% to the world food production providing dietary fibre, proteins, energy, minerals and vitamins required for human health. Cereals like rice, maize, wheat, barley, sorghum, and oats are chiefly used in the preparation of traditional fermented foods and beverages. However, the nutritional quality of cereals and the sensory properties of their products are sometimes inferior in comparison with dairy products. The reasons behind this the lower protein content, deficiency of certain essential amino acids, the presence of determined anti-nutrients (phytic acid, tanins and polyphenols) and the coarse nature.

1. INTRODUCTION

Wine is an ancient fermented product as revealed by the wine jugs recovered (Plate 1) during excavation from different places. Wine is made all over the world and wine produced in each region from different parts of the world has different characteristics. Development and implementation of practices and policies for sustainable growth of grapes and other fruits is the most essential component for the growth and development of wine industry. The science dealing with wine production, evaluation and consumption is known as 'Oenology'. For the introduction of wine, several aspects influence the wine quality are style, the consumer perception and finally, the marketing are taken in account. Factors related with fruit growing, ripening, micro organisms and other verification factors need to be considered in wine production.

Introduction

Off late our understanding of the composition and functions of the human gut microbiota has increased exponentially and there is a great interest in producing healthy foods in particular that which have an impact in improving the gastrointestinal health such as probiotics, prebiotics and synbiotics. Many of these functional foods are dairy based and have been accepted greatly worldwide. Nonertheless, there has been a need for the development of nondairy probiotic, prebiotic and synbiotic products (Salmeron 2017). This has prompted food scientists and food industrialists to study the feasibility of applying other fermenting substrates such as cereals for the development of innovative nondairy fermented functional foods. The importance of including nanoscience and nanotechnology techniques for the creation of fermented cereal beverages that contain specific bioactive nanoparticles and their role in food packaging systems will be discussed.

The planet earth harbors a total population of 7,530,687,482 (as on 7^th September 2017 at 1345hrs) in which Asia and Africa share 4,486,207,286 and 1,252,251,830, respectively. In majority of the countries in Asia and Africa surveillance programs for detection and source tracking of human health hazard bacteria in foods is scant and in some cases do not exist. Hence, the task is much more complicated especially catering to needs of food, nutritional security and microbial safety of foods of more than 5,738,459,116 or 76.2 % of the total population of the world. The continued occurrence of foodborne illness is not evidence of the failure of our food safety system. In fact, many of our prevention and control efforts have been and continue to be highly effective. In advanced countries like US where food supply is one of the safest in the world, however, significant food borne illness continues do occur. Despite great strides in the area of microbiological food safety, much remains to be done.

Food-borne disease outbreaks are defined as the occurrence of 2 or more cases of a similar illness resulting from ingestion of a common food or observed number of cases of a particular disease exceeds the expected number. These can be confirmed (when at least one causal agent is identified) or suspected (based on clinical and epidemiological information). Although most cases are sporadic, these diseases draw attention to themselves due to outbreaks, thorough investigation of which can help in identifying control measures.Annual burden of foodborne diseases in the WHO South- East Asia Region includes more than: 150 million illness, 175 000 deaths, 12 million DALYs (Source: FERG Report 2010).

F0 value: It is used to express F-value when z =10oC / 18oF and the temperature is 121.1oC. It is the number of minutes at a specific temperature (250oC) required to destroy or kill a stated number of microorganisms and has specific z-value. It is also called reference value.

Facing or lining board: The layer of the paper on which the flute is embedded is called facing or lining board (Plate 258).

Facultative anaerobic: Organisms that grow either with or without oxygen.

Facultative parasites: Facultative parasites can adapt to live on dead organic matter and often have a wide host range and can easily be cultured on artificial media. These organisms may be aerobic or anaerobic but under changed conditions, they changes to anaerobic or aerobic.

Falling rate period: It is that part of the drying process during which the drying rate varies with time and the instantaneous drying rate per unit surface or weight of dry material continuously decreases. Falling rate takes place when most of the moisture has been evaporated during constant rate period. The falling rate period during dehydration take place in the final stage of dehydration when the food commodities have large amount of free water available for evaporation. Here, rate of removal of the moisture from the food to the surrounding is continuously decreasing / falling per unit time.

Introduction
Processing fruit and vegetables by applying heat is one of the most important methods of preservation as it exerts a positive preservative effect on the foods by destroying spoilage causing micro-organisms, enzymes, insects, parasites, etc. Heat processing also improves the availability of nutrients by improving digestibility, releasing vitamins like bound niacin, destroying anti-nutritional factors like trypsin inhibitor in some legumes including soybean, causing gelatinization of starches, and producing shelf-stable products. However, heating also causes some alteration or destruction of the sensory quality of fresh foods like changes in flavor, color, taste, and texture as a result, heatprocessed foods are perceived to have different sensory qualities than fresh produce.
Preservation by heat (thermal processing) involves heating foods in hermetically sealed containers for a specific time at a particular temperature to eliminate/kill/inactivate the microbial pathogens that endanger public health
and micro-organisms and enzymes that deteriorate food during storage. Most of the raw material used for canning is usually contaminated with different species and strains of bacteria, molds, and yeasts undergoing different stages of growth (lag phase, log phase, stationary phase, vegetative phase, sporulation phase, etc.,). Amongst these, bacterial spores are more difficult to inactivate. Thus, the criteria for heat processing chosen to inactivate the spores are also presumed to be capable of inactivating all other forms of microorganisms. Unlike fruits, most vegetables being low acid or even non-acid require a severe heat treatment to kill most bacteria. It is, therefore, necessary to work out the proper time and temperature combination for each category of food to ensure complete preservation.

A boiler is a sealed vessel designed to heat water or other liquids, producing steam or vapor for various applications, including heating, power generation, cooking, and industrial processes. The operation of a boiler is similar to that of a pressure cooker but on a larger scale. The steam or vapor generated is used for domestic or industrial purposes, with the system usually involves involving combustion products that heat the water. Boilers come in various types, tailored for specific uses. While domestic boilers are compact and suited for household needs, industrial boilers play an important role in production processes, often operating on a much larger scale. These industrial boilers can be environmentally friendly when powered by natural gas or other low-emission fuels, helping industries reduce harmful emissions while maintaining performance. Industrial boilers have been a part of various sectors for centuries, with applications ranging from steam-powered locomotives to power plants. Their primary benefit lies in their energy efficiency and capacity to generate significant heat, supporting industrial operations. Whether in cooking or running manufacturing plants, heat plays a central role in daily life, and boilers provide a reliable means of delivering it efficiently. In industries, the use of industrial boilers helps reduce dependency on costly electric energy. As electricity can be expensive on a large scale, boilers allow manufacturers to lower operational costs. Additionally, industrial boilers require less management and minimize dependence on electricity, making them an economical and efficient option for industries.

    
1.    Introduction
    
2.    Containers
    2.1     Materials used for forming containers
    2.2    Types of cans
    2.3    Labeling and coding
    2.4    Can seam
    
3.    Microbilogical Aspects
    3.1     Organisms associated with non acid foods
    3.2     Heat resistance of bacteria
    3.3     Logarithmic order of destruction
    3.4     Thermal death time curve
    3.5     Determination of TDT and survivor number
    3.6     F-value
    3.7    12 D concept
    
4.    Heat Penetration Aspects
    4.1    Factors that influence heat penetration
    4.2    Measurement of cold spot temperature
    
5.    Thermal Process Calculation
    5.1    General method
    5.2    Formula method
    
6    Inoculated Pack Studies

7.    Effect of Thermal Processing on Food Quality
    7.1    Cook value
    
8.    Steps of Canning Fish
        
    8.1    Handling raw material
    8.2    Dressing and size cutting
    8.3    Salt treatment
    8.4    Precooking
    8.5    Smoking
    8.6    Packing/ Filling
    8.7    Exhausting and seaming
    8.8     Retorting and cooling
    8.9    Inspection and storage

References

13.1 Introduction

A surfactant or surface-active agents are the compounds that lower the surface tension between the two liquids or between a liquid and a solid. Surfactants may act as detergents, wetting agents, emulsifiers, foaming agents and dispersants. Surfactants are normally organic compounds that are amphiphilic, meaning they contain both hydrophobic groups or hydrophilic groups. Therefore a surfactant contains both a water insoluble component and a water soluble component. Surfactant will diffuse in water and adsorb at interfaces.

The interfacial free energy is the minimum amount of work required to create that interface and the interfacial tension between two phases is determined as the interfacial free energy per unit area. The interfacial (or surface) tension is also a measure of the variance in nature of the two phases meeting at the interface (or surface). The greater the dissimilarity in their natures, the greater the interfacial (or surface) tension between them. A surfactant is therefore a substance that changes the amount of work required to expand those interfaces. Surfactants usually act to reduce interfacial free energy.

Surface active agents in the form of emulsifiers have a long history of use and are widely used in many products being used in everyday life. An extensive basic research is required to understand the reason of instability and methods to prevent the breakdown of emulsions. Emulsifiers can function as dough conditioners by improving tolerance to variations in flour quality, better gas retention resulting in lesser yeast requirements, increased uniformity in cell size, a finer grain, more resilient texture and improved slicing. Also, the characteristics of freshly baked bread like soft crumb can be retained longer, if the appropriate emulsifiers are added. Commonly used surface active agents in bread production are propylene glycol mono- and diesters, polyoxyethylene sorbitan monostearate, ethoxylated mono- and diglycerides, succinylated monoglycerides and Diacetyl tartaric acid, esters of monoglycerides. Cookie characteristics like top grain, volume and spread ratio can also be improved. Here surfactants used are sodium stearoyl fumarate, sucrose fatty acid esters, sodium stearoyl lactylate, sorbitan fatty acid esters, polysorbates and ethoxylated monoglycerides. In dairy products like Ice cream surface active agents play some important functions like to improve fat dispersion and control fat agglomeration, facilitation of fat– protein interactions, facilitate air incorporation, give smoother texture due to smaller ice crystals and air cells, increase resistance to shrinkage, improve melt-down and reduce whipping time. In candy products, the elimination of “bloom,’’ i.e., the transition of fat crystals is a key reason for the addition of surface active agents. In mixtures of triglycerides, surfactants like sorbitan esters (Spans) and ethoxylated sorbitan esters (Tweens) can control product viscosity in chocolates and in cream fillings and modify the crystal structure. Surface active agents have been utilized in the production of meat analog products also. In margarine, Emulsifiers fulfil several functions like modification of crystal structure in the vegetable fat, assistance in emulsion formation and antispattering. Here, a mixture of citric acid monoglycerides and monoglycerides or lecithin can be used. The properties and mode of action of these chemical surfactants is discussed in the following sections.

Saccharification: The process of breaking a complex carbohydrate (starch or cellulose) into its monosaccharide components is called saccharification.

Saccharimeter: A device (polarimeter) used for measuring the amount of sugar in a solution is called saccharimeter. It is also known as saccharometer. It is a hydrometer with a special scale.

Saccharin: A crystalline compound C₇H₅NO₃S that is unrelated to the carbohydrates, is several hundred times sweeter than sucrose, and is used as a calorie free sweetener.

Saccharomyces: It is one of the genus (Saccharomyces) of the family Saccharomycetaceae and is usually unicellular yeasts (brewer's yeast) that are distinguished by their sparse or absent mycelium and reproduced asexually by budding.

Safe food: Food that provide maximum nutrition and quality while revealing a minimal hazard to public health and they assume any risk present to be minimal.

Safety: Safety is a component of quality. Many experts believe that food safety is the most important quality component since a lack of safety can result in serious injury and even death of the consumer.

Food Safety and Standards Rules and Regulations-2009

    1.    The Food Safety and Standards Act, 2006 has been passed by the Parliament with the intention to integrate all present food laws into one and to have a single regulatory body.

    2.    Accordingly the Food Safety and Standards Authority of India (FSSAI) has been established under the Food Safety and Standards Act, 2006 (FSS Act, 2006) with the mandate to lay down science based standards for articles of food and to regulate their manufacture, storage, distribution, sale and import, to ensure availability of safe and wholesome food for human consumption.

    3.    In exercise of the powers conferred by section 91 of the Food Safety and Standards Act, 2006 (34 of 2006), the Central Government hereby makes the rules and regulations.

    4.    ‘‘Anti-oxidant’’ means a substance which when added to food retards or prevents oxidative deterioration of food and does not include sugar, cereal, oils, flours, herbs and spices.