eChapters

The use of salt (Sodium Chloride) in food products is an important method of preservation. It not only imparts taste to the products but also helps in checking spoilage of fruit products. Salt is added to pickles, sauces, chutneys, ketchup, and many other products. Food Safety & Standards Regulation has specified the maximum limit of salt in different products. Therefore, the estimation of salt content in food products is considered as an important attribute in food quality control.
Direct Titration Method
Direct titration (Mohr’s) method is used for the determination of salt content in food products as a routine quality control. In this method, the sample is titrated against a standard solution of silver nitrate for the estimation of salt.
Reagents
0.1 N NaOH, Phenolphthalein 1% indicator solution
0.1N Silver nitrate (AgNO3)
5% Potassium Chromate

Sapota is a hardy, evergreen small tree belonging to the family Sapotaceae. It is known botanically as Manilkara zapota van Royen (syns. M. achras Fosb., M. zapotilla Gilly; Achras sapota L., A. zapota L.; Sapota achras Mill.). Sapota, sapodilla, chiku is a hardy tropical fruit tree. In India, it is mainly cultivated for its delicious fruits. The sapodilla is believed native to Yucatan and possibly other nearby parts of southern Mexico, as well as northern Brazil and Northeastern Guatemala. But now its cultivation is extensive in India (Morton, 1987).

The major varieties under cultivation in thes states are as follows:

Andhra Pradesh: Pala, Kirtibarthi, Cricket Ball, Dwarapudi, Guthi Jonavalasa and Jonavalasa Round.

Gujarat: Kalipatti, Bhuripatti, Piilipatti, Dhola Diwani, Jhumakhia and Cricket Ball Maharashtra-Kalipatti: Cricket Ball, and Murraba

Karnataka-Kalipatti: Cricket Ball, Kirtibarthi, DHS 1 and DHS 2

Tamil Nadu: Guthi, Kirthibarthi, Pala, Co 1, Co 2 and PKM 1

8.1 Introduction

Electron Microscopes were developed due to the limitations of Light Microscopes which are limited by the physics of light to 500x or 1000x magnification and a resolution of 0.2 micrometers. In the early 1930’s this theoretical limit had been reached and there was a scientific desire to see the fine details of the interior structures of organic cells (nucleus, mitochondria etc.). This required 10,000x plus magnification which was just not possible using Light Microscopes. The Transmission Electron Microscope (TEM) was the first type of Electron Microscope to be developed and is patterned exactly on the Light Transmission Microscope except that a focused beam of electrons is used instead of light to see through the specimen. It was developed by Max Knoll and Ernst Ruska in Germany in 1931. The first Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM) debuted in 1942 with the first commercial instruments around 1965. Its late development was due to the electronics involved in scanning the beam of electrons across the sample. Electron microscope has been a valuable tool in the development of scientific theory and it contributed greatly to biology, medicine and material sciences. This wide spread use of electron microscopes is based on the fact that they permit the observation and characterization of materials on a nanometer (nm) to micrometer (µm) scale. Electron Microscopes are scientific instruments that use a beam of highly energetic electrons to examine objects on a very fine scale. This examination can yield information about the topography (surface features of an object), morphology (shape and size of the particles making up the object), composition (the elements and compounds that the object is composed of and the relative amounts of them) and crystallographic information (how the atoms are arranged in the object). A scanning electron microscope (SEM) is a type of electron microscope that produces images of a sample by scanning it with a focused beam of electrons. The electrons interact with atoms in the sample, producing various signals that can be detected and that contain information about the sample surface topography and composition. SEM can achieve resolution better than 1 nanometer. The combination of higher magnification, larger depth of focus, greater resolution, and ease of sample observation makes the SEM one of the most heavily used instruments in research areas today.

1. Introduction

Fruits and vegetables represent highly perishable items of agriculture, mainly because of their high water content in fresh form. Their production, yield and management under agriculture is dealt essentially under horticulture. They abound in species and varieties in different geographic regions of the world, influenced by the agro-climatic conditions. Some are endemic and confined to certain geographic regions only. Accordingly, they may be tropical, sub-tropical or temperate, depending on their requirements of temperature for growth and yield.

INTRODUCTION

The state of Manipur is located at the easternmost border of India and is characterized by flat valleys comprising of four valley districts (Bishnupur, Imphal East, Imphal West and Thoubal) surrounded by five mild to steep slope hill districts (Chandel, Churachanpur, Senapati, Tamenglong, and Ukhrul). The state is geographically bordered by Nagaland in the north, Burma in the east, Mizoram in the south and Assam in the west. The total geographical area of the state is 22, 327sq. km divided into 20, 089sq. km in the hills and 2, 238sq. km. in the valley. More than 98% of the population in the hill is in rural areas whereas around 60% of the population in the valley is in rural and around 40% are in the urban areas.

The AAS Unit, Imphal is located at 24045' N latitude, 93054' E longitude at an altitude of 774m above msl. The agro-climatic zone of the state covers sub tropical plain zone, sub tropical hill zone, temperate hill zone and sub temperate zone.

The term food processing covers an enormous field from simple boiling to the use of irradiation to predict the consequences on the nutritional value of fruits and vegetables. Generally, the food processing methods can be categorized as in intentional processing method (milling, peeling, washing trimming etc.), inevitable processing method (blanching, sterilizing, cooking, shredding, and drying) and accidental (inept processing or system). The nutritional losses associated with fruits and vegetable processing with different processing techniques and conditions employed. For example, the heavily processed products are although safe for human consumption but allied with reduced nutritive value. In this regard access to safe and nutritious food is considered as a basic right of humans as it is one of the ways to prevent various ailments by building better health and enforcing immunity. Escalating help awareness has guided the processes to opt for minimal processing food in recent years.
Food commodities subjected to minimal processing are capturing the market Suring to widespread concept that they might help in meeting the current requirement of vital nutrients. Development of minimally processed commodities especially fruits and vegetables have augmented at both retail and consumer levels during last years. Various organisations WHO, FAO, USDA boost up the utilization of minimally processed perishable commodities including vegetables and fruits to lessen the risk of cardiovascular diseases and cancer. Changes occurring in the eating habits have been quoted due to high anxiety for on time availability of these minimally processed fruits and vegetables. Sales of fresh cut fruits and vegetables continue to burgeon and food industries are persistently expanding primary because of consumers’ trend of health realization.

Introduction Sea buckthorn berry belongs to Elaeagnaceae having 6 species (Hippophae rhamnoides, Hippophae neurocarpa, Hippophae salicifolia, Hippophae gonicarpa, Hippophae tibetiana and Hippophae litangenis) and 12 subspecies grown all over the world. India, is having its plantations in chilly and barren conditions of Ladakh, Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand, Sikkim, and Arunachal Pradesh. Berries and fruits are believed to have such bio-active compounds like antioxidants in them that it has constructive consequences on health of human beings. Moreover, they are been proven in lessening the cardiovascular diseases, age related issues,cancer etc. Berries of Sea buckthorn is an abundant provenance of these bio-active compounds. One of the major lipophilic compounds is carotenoid pigments. And the concentration of the same has difference depending upon origin of plant, harvesting period and weather conditions. Nutritionally, the fruits have a substantial amount of carbohydrate, protein, organic acids, amino acids, and vitamins. Moreover, it also contains bioactive compounds like carotenoids, dietary minerals, antioxidants, flavonoids, vitamin C, minerals, monosaccharide, organic acids, tannins, etc. Sea buckthorn plant parts are becoming one of the useful and promising nutraceuticals for the food industry and all over the world.

Food packaging

Food packaging is an external means of preservation of food during storage, transportation and distribution and has to be provided at the production center. It forms an integral part of the production process and has an important function in the distribution of food. In today’s consumer oriented market, a package is an extremely vital link between the manufacturer of the product and the ultimate user. There is great awareness among the consumers today regarding their right to obtain proper quality and correct quantity of the product at a fair price in an aesthetic and hygienic package. Hence the basic function of food packaging is to protect the product from physical damage and contaminants, to delay microbial spoilage, to allow greater handling and to improve the presentation.

Need for packaging of fish and fishery products

Fish is a highly perishable food item and should be handled at all times with great care, in such a way so as to inhibit the growth of microorganisms. Fish is having a unique biochemical composition and its quality deteriorates rapidly and the potential shelf life is reduced if they are not handled and stored properly. The quality and type of packaging materials and the methods of packaging and storage are, therefore, of great importance for preserving the quality of fish. Fish and fish products can generally be grouped into fresh fish, frozen fish, thermally processed fish, dried fish and other value added fishery products. Each category requires special requirements for packaging and storage and hence different packaging materials.

Food Safety has been the buzz word in recent days as there are increasing consumer awareness on hazards present in food as well as the ombudsmen role played by independent media. Although regulatory regime across the world has taken proactive steps, in most of the cases it has been a knee-jerk reaction to the impending crisis. Defining the actual goal of food safety has been an arduous task as there are umpteen interrelated factors that influence the intended goals. Some of the definitions on food safety put forward by international agencies are as follows:

Introduction

Seafood provides about 25% of the global intake of animal protein and fetches a huge economy for developing nations. Many challenges concerning food safety and quality exist due to globalization and liberalization of the global f ish trade. International food safety regulatory bodies such as WTO and CAC through SPS and TBT Agreements work on ensuring food safety and quality. Adoption of risk-based analysis and implementation of the HACCP system are encouraged to maintain high seafood safety standards. International regulatory bodies set maximum residual limits for various environmental pollutants and contaminants to ensure consumer safety. Consumer education programs play important role to enhance awareness and improve transparency in the seafood supply chain. Internationally traded seafood products therefore need to meet the standards prescribed for food safety and quality requirements. In case of non-conformance, they could be detained, rejected and destroyed.

The global demand on seafood quality and safety requirement and the complexities of seafood supply chain make difficulty to ensure authenticity and traceability of seaood products in the market. Most seafood is exported from the country where it is caught while part of it via. a third country. Seafood pass-through complex supply chains involving, capture/culture, transshipment, processing, packaging, wholesale, retailing, and consumer. The global trade of seafood has led to a significant concern associated with seafood fraud.

12.1. Seafood Fraud

Seafood fraud is the practice of providing misleading information to the consumers about their product for financial gain. There are nine types of seafood fraud, which include species substitution, fishery substitution, IUU substitution, species adulteration, chain of custody abuse, catch method fraud, undeclared product extension, modern day slavery, and animal welfare

Introduction
 
Whilst food has long been used to improve health, our knowledge of the relationship between food components and health is now being used to improve food. Although most foods can be considered “functional”, in the context of this review, the term is reserved for foods and food components that have been demonstrated to provide specific health benefits beyond basic nutrition. Widespread interest in select foods that might promote health has resulted in the use of the term “functional foods”. Seaweeds are known for their richness in polysaccharides, minerals and certain vitamins [1], but they also contain bioactive substances like polysaccharides, proteins, lipids and polyphenols, with antibacterial, antiviral and antifungal, as well as many such other properties [2]. This gives seaweed great potential as a supplement in functional food or for the extraction of compounds. Physiologically active substances in marine algae are classified into two types based on the difference in the mechanisms viz. (i) non-absorbed high-molecular materials like dietary fibres, and (ii) low molecular materials, which are absorbed and which affect the maintenance of human homeostasis directly. Seaweeds are among the first marine organisms chemically analyzed, with more than 3,600 articles published describing 3,300 secondary metabolites from marine plants and algae, and they still remain an almost endless source of new bioactive compounds [3].

Dairy industry has long dealt with issues of food pathogens and inadvertent adulteration; it is time to review the plant systems with a new perspective. Each plant has its own handling protocols, physical lay-out and employee policies. Milk and other materials entering the facilities, till the distribution of the finished product needs special attention.
 
I. INCOMING MATERIALS

In general, start by considering the milk, food ingredients, packaging, chemicals and other materials that come into plant facility and warehouses, and ensure that these product streams are secure, and that materials are stored in asecure place.

Concept of Delinting

Cotton seed clumps because of linters getting trapped on them after ginning. Gin-run seeds have very low flowability and do not singulate, making cleaning, upgrading, and precise metering in planting operations challenging or impossible. To singulate the seed and increase flowability, a variety of techniques have been and are employed. Most of the techniques entail removing the tags and linters entirely or partially, although other coating techniques have also been attempted with mixed results, both financially and technically (Mezynski, 1966; Webber and Boykin, 1907).

Methods of Delinting

1. Mechanical Delinting

Mechanical delinting is the usual technique used to improve the flowability of cotton seed. As previously indicated, mechanical delinting basically involves resharpening with finer, closer-spaced saws to remove part of the commercially valuable linters.

During processing seeds are cleaned, dried, and graded which are then treated with specific fungicide and insecticide. Seed at this stage is at best quality, which are then packaged into various packaging materials in a specific weight. Packaging or bagging of processed and treated seed is a requisite for easy handling of the bulk seed. Seed packaging can be defined as filling with seed, weighing and sealing the container whereas seed package as storage container where the seeds are kept for marketing or shipping or till the next sowing time.

The Packaging of Seed Involves

1. Filling bags/ containers of uniform size with seeds of known weight.

2. Providing leaflets inside the package with information about any specific cultural practices needed.

3. Attaching labels or certification tags having information regarding all the quality parameters.

4. Temper-proof sealing of the bag.

5. Storage or transportation of the bags.

The productivity of onion is closely associated with the availability of genetically pure, healthy and high-germinating seed. Farmers often face shortages of certified seed, rapid loss of seed viability and inconsistent quality within informal supply systems. Onion seed production is technically demanding because the crop is biennial, highly cross-pollinated and sensitive to environmental conditions. This chapter discusses floral biology, climatic requirements, selection of true-to-type bulbs, isolation, seed-to-seed and bulb-to-seed production methods, pollination, harvesting, processing, testing and storage. It emphasizes quality enhancement, organized seed systems and participation of trained growers and private agencies in expanding reliable seed availability and improving economic returns.

Kharif onion helps maintain supply and stabilize prices when stored rabi onions become scarce. Its production is nevertheless challenged by high temperature, excessive rainfall, humidity, unsuitable varieties and limited availability of quality seed. Onion is biennial for seed production and requires bulb production followed by replanting for flowering and seed formation. Its protandrous flowers encourage cross-pollination, making adequate isolation and pollinator activity essential. This chapter explains short-day varietal requirements, bulb selection, vernalization, isolation, field management, pollination, harvesting, seed processing and storage. Improved infrastructure, organized production and farmer training are required to ensure continuous supplies of genetically pure, high-quality kharif onion seed.

Sanitation

Sanitation and maintaining good hygiene conditions are the important aspect of seed storage in storage godowns. Maintenance of good hygiene conditions will maintain the quality of produce in the long run (Mahapatra et al., 2014) and these practices should not be overlooked. The threshing floors should be cleaned properly before the operation so that there is no mixing of seeds or any insect-pests or pathogens. Harvesting and threshing should be followed by cleanliness of godowns to protect the seeds from the harmful pest and pathogens (Upadhyay and Ahmad, 2011). The storage godowns should be well lighted and the area should be preferably sunny, free from weeds and mostly situated at elevated areas. Damp areas should not be selected for building storage godowns as it will affect the moisture per cent of seeds thereby enabling easy growth of insect-pests and diseases (Parimala et al., 2013). Before bringing the new produce to the storage godowns, they should be cleaned properly. The cracks and crevices of storage godowns if any should be sealed ahead and the walls of the godowns should be whitewashed (Hazam and Kumar, 2022). The new seed lots should not be mixed with the older lots. The floors should be disinfected, and it should be cleaned regularly.

Concept: The preservation of viable seeds from the moment of collecting until they are needed for sowing is known as storage. Every year, a significant quantity of seeds loses their usefulness due to incorrect storage. Seeds need to be preserved and stored dry. As was previously mentioned, seed moisture content and storage temperature have the biggest effects on how long seeds last. The three main environmental elements that impact seed deterioration and loss of viability are moisture, temperature, and oxygen percentage. For over 90% of species, reducing seed moisture content (MC) to certain thresholds consistently lengthens the seed’s lifespan (Roberts 1973). These species are categorized as “orthodox” in terms of the conditions in which they should store seeds; under suitable dry, cool conditions, they typically maintain viability and germinability even after extended periods of storage. Ellis and Roberts’ improved viability equations have addressed the quantitative impacts of both drying and cooling for orthodox seeds. The life of the seed is often doubled for every 1% drop in seed moisture (when seed MC fluctuates between 5 and 14%) and every 5 oC drop in storage temperature (between 0 oC and 50 oC) (Harrington 1972). Low seed MC and low temperature are hence fundamentals of traditional seed storage. Careful regulation of these two factors is necessary to achieve optimal storage life. But most seed produced annually just has to be kept from harvest until the following planting season. Depending on the type of seed, it may or may not need to be stored at temperatures and relative humidity above room temperature. Regardless of any modifications made for unique uses, the local climate storage facility needs to have a few essential components (Barre, 1954; Wheeler and Hill, 1957).