eChapters

    
1.    Introduction
    
2.    Containers
    2.1     Materials used for forming containers
    2.2    Types of cans
    2.3    Labeling and coding
    2.4    Can seam
    
3.    Microbilogical Aspects
    3.1     Organisms associated with non acid foods
    3.2     Heat resistance of bacteria
    3.3     Logarithmic order of destruction
    3.4     Thermal death time curve
    3.5     Determination of TDT and survivor number
    3.6     F-value
    3.7    12 D concept
    
4.    Heat Penetration Aspects
    4.1    Factors that influence heat penetration
    4.2    Measurement of cold spot temperature
    
5.    Thermal Process Calculation
    5.1    General method
    5.2    Formula method
    
6    Inoculated Pack Studies

7.    Effect of Thermal Processing on Food Quality
    7.1    Cook value
    
8.    Steps of Canning Fish
        
    8.1    Handling raw material
    8.2    Dressing and size cutting
    8.3    Salt treatment
    8.4    Precooking
    8.5    Smoking
    8.6    Packing/ Filling
    8.7    Exhausting and seaming
    8.8     Retorting and cooling
    8.9    Inspection and storage

References

1.1 Introduction Among the C4 grasses known as panicoids (subfamily: panicoideae), which also includes nutrient-rich cereals like millets and sorghum as well as commercially valuable crops like switchgrass, napier grass, and guinea grass, are bioenergy feedstocks like sugarcane and miscanthus. Among all, millets overpowered others in terms of biotic/abiotic stress resilience, resource sustainability as well as nutritional benefits. Minor millets, often known as nutritional cereals, are a type of small-seeded grains that are members of the Poaceae family. Up to 35 kinds of grass from 20 genera are well-known for being minor millets. Finger millet, foxtail, proso millet, barnyard millet, kodo millet, and little millet are the most significant small millets that are grown worldwide. India is the leading producer and consumer of millet crops and their products. The total area of small millets in India is around 1.63 m ha, with a production of 1.82 m tones during the year 2016- 17 (Annual progress report 2018-19, ICAR-AICRP on small millets).

Nisin is produced by strains of

a) Streptococcus lactis b) Pseudomonas

c) E. coli d) Clostridium

13.1 Introduction

A surfactant or surface-active agents are the compounds that lower the surface tension between the two liquids or between a liquid and a solid. Surfactants may act as detergents, wetting agents, emulsifiers, foaming agents and dispersants. Surfactants are normally organic compounds that are amphiphilic, meaning they contain both hydrophobic groups or hydrophilic groups. Therefore a surfactant contains both a water insoluble component and a water soluble component. Surfactant will diffuse in water and adsorb at interfaces.

The interfacial free energy is the minimum amount of work required to create that interface and the interfacial tension between two phases is determined as the interfacial free energy per unit area. The interfacial (or surface) tension is also a measure of the variance in nature of the two phases meeting at the interface (or surface). The greater the dissimilarity in their natures, the greater the interfacial (or surface) tension between them. A surfactant is therefore a substance that changes the amount of work required to expand those interfaces. Surfactants usually act to reduce interfacial free energy.

Surface active agents in the form of emulsifiers have a long history of use and are widely used in many products being used in everyday life. An extensive basic research is required to understand the reason of instability and methods to prevent the breakdown of emulsions. Emulsifiers can function as dough conditioners by improving tolerance to variations in flour quality, better gas retention resulting in lesser yeast requirements, increased uniformity in cell size, a finer grain, more resilient texture and improved slicing. Also, the characteristics of freshly baked bread like soft crumb can be retained longer, if the appropriate emulsifiers are added. Commonly used surface active agents in bread production are propylene glycol mono- and diesters, polyoxyethylene sorbitan monostearate, ethoxylated mono- and diglycerides, succinylated monoglycerides and Diacetyl tartaric acid, esters of monoglycerides. Cookie characteristics like top grain, volume and spread ratio can also be improved. Here surfactants used are sodium stearoyl fumarate, sucrose fatty acid esters, sodium stearoyl lactylate, sorbitan fatty acid esters, polysorbates and ethoxylated monoglycerides. In dairy products like Ice cream surface active agents play some important functions like to improve fat dispersion and control fat agglomeration, facilitation of fat– protein interactions, facilitate air incorporation, give smoother texture due to smaller ice crystals and air cells, increase resistance to shrinkage, improve melt-down and reduce whipping time. In candy products, the elimination of “bloom,’’ i.e., the transition of fat crystals is a key reason for the addition of surface active agents. In mixtures of triglycerides, surfactants like sorbitan esters (Spans) and ethoxylated sorbitan esters (Tweens) can control product viscosity in chocolates and in cream fillings and modify the crystal structure. Surface active agents have been utilized in the production of meat analog products also. In margarine, Emulsifiers fulfil several functions like modification of crystal structure in the vegetable fat, assistance in emulsion formation and antispattering. Here, a mixture of citric acid monoglycerides and monoglycerides or lecithin can be used. The properties and mode of action of these chemical surfactants is discussed in the following sections.

Saccharification: The process of breaking a complex carbohydrate (starch or cellulose) into its monosaccharide components is called saccharification.

Saccharimeter: A device (polarimeter) used for measuring the amount of sugar in a solution is called saccharimeter. It is also known as saccharometer. It is a hydrometer with a special scale.

Saccharin: A crystalline compound C₇H₅NO₃S that is unrelated to the carbohydrates, is several hundred times sweeter than sucrose, and is used as a calorie free sweetener.

Saccharomyces: It is one of the genus (Saccharomyces) of the family Saccharomycetaceae and is usually unicellular yeasts (brewer's yeast) that are distinguished by their sparse or absent mycelium and reproduced asexually by budding.

Safe food: Food that provide maximum nutrition and quality while revealing a minimal hazard to public health and they assume any risk present to be minimal.

Safety: Safety is a component of quality. Many experts believe that food safety is the most important quality component since a lack of safety can result in serious injury and even death of the consumer.

Food Safety and Standards Rules and Regulations-2009

    1.    The Food Safety and Standards Act, 2006 has been passed by the Parliament with the intention to integrate all present food laws into one and to have a single regulatory body.

    2.    Accordingly the Food Safety and Standards Authority of India (FSSAI) has been established under the Food Safety and Standards Act, 2006 (FSS Act, 2006) with the mandate to lay down science based standards for articles of food and to regulate their manufacture, storage, distribution, sale and import, to ensure availability of safe and wholesome food for human consumption.

    3.    In exercise of the powers conferred by section 91 of the Food Safety and Standards Act, 2006 (34 of 2006), the Central Government hereby makes the rules and regulations.

    4.    ‘‘Anti-oxidant’’ means a substance which when added to food retards or prevents oxidative deterioration of food and does not include sugar, cereal, oils, flours, herbs and spices.

Introduction

Water is not only a vital environmental factor to all forms of life, but it has also a great role to play in socio-economic development of human population. Since antiquity humans have valued the importance of clean water and have used various techniques to improve its quality. In modern times, the safe drinking water became first a public health issue and then a human rights issue. The access to safe drinkin gwater now considered as a basic human right which is an essential component of effective policy for health protection. Improving access to safe drinking-water can result in tangible as well as intangible benefits to health. It has been shown that investments in water supply and sanitation can yield a net economic benefit, because the reductions in adverse health effects and healthcare costs outweigh the costs of undertaking the interventions (WHO, 2017). Past experiences have also proved that interventions in improving access to safe water favour the poor in particular, whether in rural or urban areas, and can be an effective part of poverty alleviation strategies. The disparity in water availability, reliability, and quality between the developed world and developing countries is enormous. Unfortunately, in many developing countries people lack access to safe water and therefore waterborne diseases are still a major cause of death, especially among children under age of 5. According to a joint report by World Health Organization (WHO) and United Nations International Children’s Emergency Fund (UNICEF) (WHO/UNICEF report 2017), around 2.1 billion people worldwide lack access to safe and readily available water at home, and around 4.5 billion, lack safely managed sanitation facilities. Moreover, many of these countries that have set drinking water standards often lack the resources to implement or enforce them.

Introduction

India, with its unique agro climatic conditions is capable of producing a wide variety of fruits and vegetables. These highly perishable produce in both fresh and processed forms are of high demand in domestic as well as international market. Nowadays farming is becoming an enterprise and shifting towards consumer driven agriculture. Produce quality measurement is of utmost importance as consumers are more quality conscious and ready to pay higher for quality. Consumer preference is moving towards healthy food, minimally processed and, fresh cut fruits and vegetables, prepared salads, ready to cook, ready to eat and ready to drink health beverages. Hence health, nutrition, convenience, quality and safety of produce should be guaranteed to the consumers. Due to globalisation of production and trade, legislations and standards for markets are strict and product quality is the necessity for competitive markets.

Quality of a produce, based on subjective and objective measurement, is defined differently by consumers, wholesalers, retailers, processors or any other who is associated with it and varies with market either national or international. Quality of foods may be defined as the composite of those characteristics that differentiate individual units of a product, and have significance in determining the degree of acceptability of that unit to the user (Kramer, 1965). According to ISO (International Organisation of Standardisation), “Food quality is the totality of features and characteristics of a product that bear on its ability to satisfy stated or implied needs” and as per CAC (2003), “Food safety is the assurance that food will not cause harm to the consumer when it is prepared and/or consumed according to its intended use”. Food safety is the most important component of quality.

Kodo millet (Paspalum scrobiculatum) is a resilient and ancient cereal crop native to the Indian subcontinent. Its cultivation dates back to ancient times, with references found in historical texts such as the Brihad Sanhita. This millet species exhibits remarkable adaptability to various agroclimatic conditions, making it well-suited for cultivation across different regions. Kodo millet thrives in a range of soil types, particularly well-drained and sandy soils, which contribute to its successful growth and yield. In terms of nutritional composition, kodo millet stands out as a significant source of protein, dietary fiber, minerals, and antioxidants. Its bioactive components contribute to potential health benefits, including aiding in diabetes management, improving cardiovascular health, and providing essential nutrients. The processing of kodo millet involves various techniques such as puffing, roasting, milling, and fermentation, each influencing its nutritional profile and culinary applications.

INTRODUCTION

The concept of hurdle technology has been developed as a new way to realize safe, stable, nutritious and economical foods. It employs combination of different preservation techniques to achieve a multi-target, mild but reliable preservation of foods. The application of hurdle technology in food preservation is increasing rapidly worldwide. Over the years, insight into the hurdle effect has been broadened and the application of hurdle technology has been extended. A better understanding of the occurrence and interaction of food preservative factors (hurdles) in foods is the basis for improvements in food preservation. If the hurdles for the microbes are known, the microbiological stability and safety of this food might be optimized by changing the intensity or quality of these hurdles. Using the proper combination of hurdles, it is possible to improve not only the microbial stability and safety but also the sensory and nutritive quality as well as the economical aspects of food. The hurdle concept is also referred to as food preservation by combined methods, combined process, combination preservation or combination processing techniques. The hurdle effect is of fundamental importance for the preservation of foods. The illustration of hurdle effect was first introduced by Leistner in 1978. Based on the understanding of hurdle effects, the concept of hurdle technology was derived (Leistner 1985).

Introduction 
Chapter 14 explores the intricate relationship between rural development and agricultural economics, emphasizing their roles in promoting sustainability and food security. This chapter examines various aspects of agricultural policy, agribusiness, farm management, rural entrepreneurship, and sociology, linking these elements to broader economic and environmental concerns. The chapter starts with an analysis of agricultural policy and development, discussing how policy frameworks shape agricultural practices and rural growth. It highlights the importance of effective policies in fostering agricultural innovation, improving productivity, and supporting rural development. Agribusiness and marketing are crucial components of agricultural economics. This section delves into agribusiness strategies and agricultural marketing practices that influence market access, value addition, and overall economic viability for farmers and agribusinesses. Farm management and financial analysis are essential for optimizing agricultural operations and ensuring financial sustainability. The chapter explores principles of farm management, including planning, decision-making, and risk management, along with techniques for financial analysis to evaluate the profitability and efficiency of farming enterprises. Rural entrepreneurship is highlighted as a key driver of economic development in rural areas. This section examines how entrepreneurial activities contribute to rural growth, job creation, and economic diversification, fostering resilience and innovation in rural communities. Rural sociology provides insights into the social dimensions of rural development. The chapter covers the importance of rural sociology in understanding social structures, behaviors, and dynamics within rural communities. It also discusses new concepts in rural sociology that address contemporary challenges and opportunities. The importance of rural development and agricultural economics in food security is emphasized. The chapter explains how these fields contribute to enhancing food security by improving agricultural practices, supporting rural livelihoods, and addressing food supply challenges.

INTRODUCTION

A mixture is a combination of two or more elements or compounds in any proportion so that the components do not lose their identity. Most materials in our world are mixtures and very few materials are pure substances. Foods are complex mixtures of compounds and the extraction or separation of food components is fundamental for the preparation of ingredients to be used in other processes. Separations usually aim to remove specific components in order to increase the added value of the products, which may be the extracted component, the residue or both. Purposes include cleaning, sorting and grading operations, extraction and purification of fractions such as sugar solutions or vegetable oils, recovery of valuable components such as enzymes or flavour compounds, or removal of undesirable components such as microorganisms, agricultural residues or radionuclides. For example, cooking oils from oilseeds or gelatin from connective tissue; or for retrieval of high value compounds, such as enzymes (e.g. papain from papaya for meat tenderisation or rennet from calf stomachs for cheese making). Other types of separation methods are used to sort foods by separating them into classes based on size, colour or shape and to clean them by separating contaminating materials.

I. INTRODUCTION

The fruits and vegetables we eat and flowers and ornamentals we enjoy are biological entities. They breath, produce heat, perspire, are easily damaged, get diseases and finally die. These carry on processes characteristics of all living things before or after harvest to perform the metabolic activities:

1. to maintain cellular organization
2. to transport metabolites around the tissue and
3. to maintain membrane permeability.

Introduction 
In the rapidly evolving landscape of agricultural sciences, the integration of artificial intelligence (AI) and digital technologies is heralding a new era of innovation, efficiency, and sustainability. As the global population continues to grow and the impacts of climate change become increasingly pronounced, the demand for sustainable food production systems has never been more critical. AI and digital technologies are emerging as powerful tools to address these challenges, offering unprecedented opportunities to enhance food security, improve resource management, and build resilience against climate-related disruptions. AI-driven solutions, such as predictive analytics, machine learning, and precision agriculture, are transforming the way farmers cultivate crops, manage livestock, and optimize supply chains. These technologies enable real-time decision-making, allowing for more efficient use of resources such as water, fertilizers, and pesticides, while also reducing the environmental footprint of agricultural practices. The application of AI extends beyond the farm level, influencing every aspect of the agricultural value chain, from seed selection to post-harvest processing, distribution, and market access. The advent of the Internet of Things (IoT), coupled with advanced sensors and robotics, has further revolutionized agriculture by enabling the continuous monitoring of environmental conditions, soil health, and crop performance. IoT devices collect vast amounts of data, which, when analyzed using AI algorithms, provide actionable insights that empower farmers to make informed decisions. This data-driven approach not only enhances productivity but also contributes to sustainable farming practices by minimizing waste and optimizing resource allocation. Moreover, digital platforms and mobile technologies are bridging the gap between farmers and critical information, making it easier to access weather forecasts, market trends, and expert advice. These technologies are particularly transformative in developing regions, where they can provide smallholder farmers with the tools and knowledge needed to improve their livelihoods and contribute to food security. Additionally, blockchain technology is emerging as a solution for enhancing transparency and traceability in the food supply chain, ensuring that consumers have access to safe and ethically produced food.

Introduction

The basic components of diet include carbohydrate, protein, fat, vitamins and minerals. Vitamins are the essential nutrients which are not formed in our body and required in minute amount from the diet. Vitamins are crucial for the optimal functions of several enzymes; thus important for optimal growth and development. Vitamins perform various functions that help in regulation of metabolism, prevent chronic diseases, maintain natural appetite, mental health and immunity.

In 1912, Polish biochemist Kazimierz Funk coined the term ‘vitamine’;a substance that was present in rice polishing and foods that cured polyneuritis in birds and beriberi in humans. The name is from ‘vit’ for vital nutrient and ‘amine’ for its similarity as an amine. Vital signify that these factors are indispensable for life. Earlier they are identified and thought to contain amino groups, thus the word amine was used, which was true for thiamine but later work revealed that most of the vitamins do not have amino groups. Thus the word was shortened to vitamin in English. It should be noted that the term vitamin does not denote to some othern utrients such as essential amino acids, essential fatty acids, dietary minerals or other nutrients that contribute towards good health.

Vitamins may be defined as organic compound needed in minute amount through diet to perform specific biological functions for normal growth and health of the organisms.Vitamins should have following characteristics:

Food is a resource of immense importance and its safety in the whole production and supply chain, is very crucial. In the last century, drastic increase in the incidence of food borne illnesses, large-scale food poisoning outbreaks and surfacing of new foodborne pathogens and hazards were widely reported. Contaminants can enter food through various pathways in the food production process, and can occur naturally or as the result of inferior or inadequate production practices. Concerns on food safety are fuelled by the industrialization of agricultural production, liberalization of trade, tourism, food consumption pattern and food preparation practices. The availability of information through the mass and social media increases the number of reported cases of inadequate food safety. International competitiveness depends more on quality and safety concerns than on prices and this creates a need for safer food production and distribution practices.

Introduction

Food Safety is the assurance that food is acceptable for human consumption according to its intended use. The slogan of the World Food Safety Day 2019 “If it’s not safe - it’s not food!” portray, unsafe food is a threat to mankind. Ensuring food safety to protect public health and promote economic development is of utmost importance and it remains a significant challenge in both developing and developed countries. Food borne diseases remain a real and formidable problem, causing great human sufferings and significant economic losses. According to WHO 2019-20 World Water Day report, one third of the population of developed countries may be affected by food-borne diseases each year and the problem is likely to be even more wide spread in developing countries, where food and water borne diarrhoeal diseases kill an estimated 2.2 million people each year, mostly children. While unacceptable rates of food borne illness still remain, new hazards continue to enter the food supply.

A food safety hazard refers to any agent with the potential to cause adverse health consequences for consumers. It occurs when food is exposed to hazardous agents which result in contamination of food. In other terms it can be defined as anything that could contaminate food or could otherwise violate established food safety program criteria, if left uncontrolled. The National Advisory Committee on Microbiological Criteria for Foods (NACMCF, 1997) defined a hazard as a “biological, chemical, or physical agent that is reasonably likely to cause illness or injury in the absence of its control”.

A hazard may be introduced into the food supply any time during harvesting, formulation and processing, packaging and labelling, transportation, storage, preparation and serving. Food safety hazards are generally categorized into four classes: Physical, chemical, biological and allergens. Food manufacturers can adopt Food Safety Management Systems (FSMS), which include Good Manufacturing Practices (GMP), Good Hygiene Practices (GHP), Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Point (HACCP) and other practices to strictly check the hazards and make the food safe.

Understanding the hazards that contribute to food borne illness and injury is important to determine the necessary steps to prevent or reduce it to an acceptable level or eliminate hazards altogether before food reaches the consumer.

Introduction

Packaging is the science, art and technology of enclosing or protecting products for distribution, storage, sale, and use. Packaging also refers to the process of design, evaluation, and production of packages. Packaging may be defined as the art and science which involves preparing the articles for transport, storage display and use. India is a land of large varieties of fruits and vegetables due to its vast soil and climatic diversity. With 38 and 71 million tons of production of fruits and vegetables, India is the second largest producer of fruits and vegetables next to Brazil and China respectively. Apart from the huge value addition and employment involved in these activities, packaging has served the Indian economy by helping preservation of the quality and lengthening the shelf life of innumerable products-ranging from milk and biscuits, to drugs and medicines, processed and semi-processed foods, fruits and vegetables, edible oils, electronic goods etc., besides domestic appliances and industrial machinery and other hardware needing transportation (FAO, 1985).

Introduction

Fruit and vegetable development starts with formation of an edible part fruit setting, seedling emergence, tuber development and ends with loss of edible character, or spoilage through physiological deterioration, development of fibrous character or spoilage through microbiological intervention . The state of maturity of a fresh horticultural commodity is therefore is a continuum process along the development scale. The term mature implies that point in the development scale when the horticultural commodity in the state that is ready to use (consume, process, store). For the packing house, maturity means suitability for storage followed by sufficient shelf life to assure profitable supply to markets. On the other hand, the retail consumer may value colour, flavour, or textural attributes. This implies that maturity and an appropriate compromise must be achieved through the marketing process.

Quality, on the other hand, relates to the degree of the satisfaction that the consumer or customer is likely to obtain through the use of mature commodity. Maturity and quality are interrelated with market expectations or requirements. These expectations or requirements are expressed through regulations or guidelines of grower groups or through legislative authority expressed as quality standards or grades and enforced through inspection agencies associated with government departments.