eChapters

Horticulture sector, comprising fruits, vegetables, floriculture, medicinal and aromatic crops, mushroom, spices and plantation crops, had witnessed phenomenal growth in production and productivity during the last two decades. Resultantly, horticulture in India is recognised as one of the fastest growing sectors in the world. The production has reached to 351.92 million tonnes in 2022-23 as compared to 231 million tonnnes in 2010. Progressive urbanization, increased spendable income and awareness for balanced and nutritious food have contributed towards increasing demand of horticulture produce. The increasing demand coupled with higher income returns per unit area has triggered this growth pattern, which has been largely possible due to policy environment to support horticulture both for research and development.

10.1 Introduction

Food safety and quality are the two important factor which results in consumer food choices. Nowadays consumers are demanding food which is safe and of high quality in terms of nutrition due to a healthier life style. Food safety and quality are the terms used interchangeably. Food safety refers to all those hazards, that make food injurious to the health of the consumer and it is not negotiable. Food quality includes attributes that influences the product's value to the consumer. This includes both negative and positive attributes; negative attributes includes spoilage, contamination, discoloration, off-odours and positive attributes include colour, flavour, texture and processing method of the food. This distinction between safety and quality has implications for public policy and influences the nature of the food control system. Food control is defined as a mandatory regulatory activity which provides consumer protection and ensures food is safe, wholesome and fit for human consumption during production, handling, storage, processing, and distribution.

Despite the huge efforts made by the food safety authorities and industries, food safety still remains a critical issue. In food industries, producers have to satisfy both safety and quality criteria for their products to the consumer. Food processors have multiple options in terms of different quality and management systems, they have to choose the most appropriate one for its specific activity and should establish, document and implement effective systems in the processing area for managing quality and safety of the product. Over the past few decades, food-borne illnesses have raised great concern about the safety of food. Considerable steps are taken by the food processor for understanding and managing the risks of airborne diseases. Among various systems, Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Point (HACCP) is effective tool which focuses mainly on controlling hazards to ensure the production of safe and wholesome food. For maintaining the safety and increasing the shelf life of food, traditionally it has been preserved by thermal processing, freezing, salting and drying. But nowadays consumers are demanding convenient, innovative, fresh foods, including new "minimally processed" products. To meet consumers' expectations in the 21^st century, the food industries are implementing novel technologies whose purpose will be two fold: 1) to provide the new quality attributes demanded by consumers; and 2) to ensure the all important and often expected assurance of food safety. The novel technologies will include various minimally processed technologies like high pressure processing (HPP), pulsed electric field (PEF), ohmic heating, dielectric heating, microwave heating, ultrasound, modified atmosphere packaging (MAP) and cleanroom technology. Among these cleanroom technology have attracted great attention for maintaining the safety and quality of the food products as because it doesn't have any effect on the nutritional quality of the food being processed, it maintains the hygienic condition in the processing area, remove contaminants from the processing area and clean air in the processing area which in turn results in safe food product. The main objective of cleanroom technology is to eliminate airborne contaminants from the humans and/or from the environment. An air curtains and a positive air pressure is maintained in the processing unit using filtered air. Production personnel will use the special clothing which is preferred for cleanroom to reduce the contamination from both air- and human-borne microorganisms. In this chapter we will discuss about cleanroom technology, its historical background, its classification, layout of cleanroom, air handling, personnel and its clothing, regulations in cleanroom, and its application in food industries.

Introduction

In terms of individual health and physical condition, the situation in modern society is rather giving rise to concern. The last decades have seen a tremendous increase in availability and variety of food products which has undoubtedly affected the food habits of the average individual. Despite the fact that food has become overall safer and increased accessibility allows for healthier diets, worrying we are nevertheless faced nowadays with diet- related diseases of proper epidemic proportions. We now encounter an epidemic of obesity that spreads not only to the majority of the adult population but also, more worryingly, to young people who have rarely the option of alternative diets. Moreover, as scientific proofs for the link between diet and disease (particularly cardiovascular diseases and some cancers) accumulate, action is urgently needed. There are an increasing number of calls for action. It is within this situation that functional foods have developed. They assume a highly targeted solution to the diet related diseases with effective reduction of risk and improved physical and mental well being. That represents a big step from the traditional food-for-nutrition but the scientific milieu is ready to take the chances. The emerging ‘functional food science’ is focusing research on the effects of functional foods on growth, development, metabolism, the cardiovascular system, intestinal physiology, and even on behavioural and psychological functions (FAIR, 2000, Vol. 1). In view of these facts, it should appear necessary to assess and evaluate the developments in food production in terms of their effect on the individual consumer and the society at large.

6.1 Introduction

The food industry produces large volumes of waste both solid and liquid, starting from the initial step of raw material to the final consumption of processed food. Apart from a loss of valuable biomass and nutrients, the generated waste poses increased disposal and potentially severe pollution problems. Meat and meat industry is no exception where slaughter houses, meat processors, wholesalers and rendering plant generates huge amount of waste [1, 2].

Meat and meat processing industry, is among the least profitable industries despite its immense size and large gross sales. Effective recovery and utilization of by-products and wastes is the lifeline of meat and poultry processing industry. Thus, it becomes imperative that an effort be made to reduce expenses by employing the use of new or modified processing methods and through in-plant treatment, where waste effluents and by-products could be recovered and often upgraded to useful products of higher value. Meat processing wastes have a potential for recycling raw materials or for conversion into useful products of higher value as by-product or even as raw material for other industries or for use as food or feed after biological treatment.

Coconut, arecanut and palmyrah, which hold significant cultural and historical importance in India, have been the primary focus of cultivation efforts. Cocoa, a relatively recent addition to India, serves as a companion crop to coconut and arecanut, contributing to the economic well-being of farmers nationwide. However, the current situation emphasizes the crucial role of value addition and product diversification in stabilizing prices. Despite the initial stages of value addition in India’s palm crops, recent innovations and established value chains have the potential to empower farmers as entrepreneurs, thereby augmenting their income. Moreover, the value-added products from these palms have enormous export potential. This chapter explores the advancements in value-added products and the diversification of coconut, arecanut, palmyrah, and cocoa, providing insights into opportunities for cottage or small-scale industries.

Introduction

The cold chain is a meticulously managed series of actions using specialized equipment to ensure products remain within a specific low-temperature range from production to consumption (ASHRAE, 2024; IIR, 2024). This unbroken sequence encompasses refrigerated production, storage, and distribution activities, safeguarding the safety and quality of perishable and thermo-sensitive goods like agricultural commodities (such as fresh produce, meat, dairy, seafood, chemicals, pharmaceuticals, flowers, wine, etc.), processed foods and pharmaceuticals (Aung and Chang, 2014; Awan, 2023). For climacteric fruits like bananas, custard apples, apples, pears, tomatoes, mangoes, and avocados, cold storage facilitates controlled ripening, extending the time between harvest and consumption. Cold chain management, integral to the overall supply chain, requires expertise in maintaining temperature, air quality, and adherence to regulatory standards. Any disruption in this process can lead to product spoilage and financial implications (FAO, 2019). The management of the cold chain system is crucial for preserving the freshness, taste, and nutritional value of fruits from harvest to consumption (Kader, 2003).

STARCH : Starch is a complex carbohydrate that has been cursed by dieters in years past, but that now is praised by nutritionists as a particularly healthful source of energy. In food preparation at home starch is a very important as a thickening agent. However starch is but one of several polysaccharides that are used as thickners in the food industry.

STRUCTURE : Although starch is the name used by nutritionists this complex carbohydrate actually consists of two fractions amylose and amylopectin. The two fractions occur together in starch from most sources so the overall behaviour of starch is determined in large measure by the relative amounts of amylose and amylopectin. Each of the fraction has unique properties that contribute to the functionality of starch from various plant sources.

    1.    As per FSSAI, 2011 regulations, what is the fat and SNF content in buffalo milk
        a)    5 & 9    b)    6 & 8
        c)    6 & 9    d)    None
    2.    As per FSSAI, 2011 regulations, what is the fat and SNF content in  cow milk
        a)    4 & 9    b)    4 & 8.5
        c)    6 & 9    d)    None
    3.    As per FSSAI, 2011 regulations, what is the fat and SNF content in  standardized milk
        a)    4 & 9    b)    4.5 & 8.5
        c)    6 & 9    d)    None

Introduction

Baking is a traditional activity which has a long history, and according to some recent discovery, it is indicated to be dated back to as early as around 21,000 B.C. It is termed as a complex operation of prolonged heat transfer through radiation, convection, and conduction. Baking is considered to be one of the oldest methods of cooking, most commonly the bread baking but it is not only limited to the bread instead it provides a wide range of products such as cookies, pastry, pizzas, breakfast cereals, etc. Baking includes lots of raw materials such as flour, water, yeast, milk and milk derivatives, shortening, sugars, eggs and some minor ingredients such as malt products, cocoa products, dough improvers, inhibitors of microbiological spoilers, spices, etc. Food items which are rich in sugar and carbohydrates such as chocolates, candies are known as confections, and the art of making these products is termed as confectionary. Confectionery can be broadly classified into two major categories, namely sweet confectionary and baked confectionery. Conventionally cake was defined as the flour based sweet food, whereas bread was defined as the flou-based non-sweet food.

Baked confectionery, also known as flour confectionery includes products such as cakes, pastries, and similar baked goods, especially which are served in dessert. These delicacies hold history not much later to the bread baking. Earlier the baked confectionery especially cakes were only affordable by the rich and were prepared for special occasions such as festivity, celebrations, etc. but now a large number of flour confectioneries are being produced in the world which is delightfully acceptable and are much more in demand by a various group of people.

Milk is the secretion of the mammary glands of animals. For human consumption, milk is that liquid obtained from the cow or the buffalo during the period following at least 72 hours after calving or until the milk is colostrums-free. It is a complex biological fluid consisting of seven main components: water, fat, protein, sugar (lactose), minerals, vitamins and enzymes. Milk is a white opaque fluid in which fat is present as an emulsion, protein and some mineral matters in colloidal suspension and lactose together with some minerals and soluble proteins in true solution. The opacity of milk is due to its content of suspended particles of fat, proteins and certain minerals. The colour varies from white to yellow depending on the carotene content of the fat. Skimmed milk is more transparent with a slightly bluish tinge. Milk of a good flavour has a pleasant, slightly sweet taste, and no odour. It is an excellent source of calcium, phosphorous and riboflavin. Vitamin A and D are currently added to whole milk, partly skimmed and skimmed milk.

Cleaning and sanitisation are the two processes employed in dairy industry to ensure hygiene and product safety. The safety of milk and milk products is a very important aspect and every attempt should be made, during processing, to minimize contamination through handling and processing equipments. The accumulated dried milk solids (milk stones) consist largely of calcium phosphate, milk proteins (precipitated, coagulated and baked on by heat) and insoluble calcium salts from water and washing detergents. The surface can also contain biofilms, which are formed by the incorporation of bacteria into the accumulated inorganic and organic materials that attach to most surfaces. With time and in the presence of nutrients, a biofilm and the bacteria within the biofilm will grow and become strongly attached to the surface. The removal of dairy soil, milk stones as well biofilms is the prime objective of the cleaning process. International Dairy Federation (IDF) defines a clean surface as one which is free from residual film or soil that will not contaminate the food products coming in contact with it.

While cleaning refers to the removal of soil from the surface of the equipment, sanitisation implies destruction of all pathogenic and almost all non-pathogenic organisms. Cleaning and sanitisation are complimentary processes. Either of the processes alone will not achieve the desired result, which is to leave the surface as free as possible from soil and viable organisms. In actual practice cleaning and sanitisation overlap to some extent, as during cleaning a high proportion of bacteria are destroyed and others get removed in the detergent solution. Inadequate or faulty cleaning and sanitisation can have serious consequences, as milk is a prefect nutrient in which bacteria can multiply. A thorough understanding of the cleaning methods is, therefore, necessary for economic production of high quality food products.

1. EXPERIMENT 1 : INDUSTRIAL USES OF IMPORTANT CHEMICALS

Introduction

Food additives are substances of natural or synthetic origin, which are added to foods to serve a certain technological or sensory function. They are utilized in the preparation and processing of almost all types of food in order to give favorable attributes to the food. Additives are the substances which are of little or no nutritive value but are added to food to enhance its flavour, appearance or other favourable quality. They are used in the processing or storage of foods especially in the developed countries includes antioxidants, food preservatives, colouring and flavouring agents etc. Food additives are substances added to food to preserve flavour or enhance its taste and appearance (Latiful Bari and Yeasmin 2018). Some additives have been used for centuries for example, preserving food by pickling with vinegar, salting, as with bacon, or using sulfur dioxide as in some wines. The use of food additives is not a modern-day invention; they have been used for centuries. The practice probably started when man first discovered that fire would cook and thereby preserve his meat. Later he realized that the addition of salt would preserve without cooking. Food preservation began when man first learned to safeguard food from one harvest to the next and by the salting and smoking of meat and fish. The Egyptians used colours and flavourings and the Romans used spices and colours for preservation and improving the appearance of foods. Thus, food additives have been used for centuries to enhance the variety of food products, to preserve, improve its taste and appearance, and provide a better mouth feel. Food additives afford us the convenience and enjoyment of a wide variety of appetizing, nutritious, fresh, and palatable food. Their quantities in food are small, yet their impact is great.

1. Introduction

Extrusion is one of the most preferred ways for creating the indulgence called ready-to-eat (RTE) snack foods with diverse shapes, sizes, colours and also nutritional and functional values which appeal to the diverse group of consumer with varied choices. In this chapter ready-to-eat extruded and puffed snacks are the focus covering the technology involved, criteria for ingredient selection, design of experiment, process modelling, effects of extrusion on physical, nutritional and functional quality of the snack; a few relevant case studies are also discussed.

1.1 Market for RTE snack foods

Indian cooking and lifestyle have undergone tremendous changes in the last 15 years. There are many major factors impacting this change which include, liberalization policy, dual income, separate living of couples, innovative kitchen applications, media proliferation, etc. The cooking style and eating habits in India varies drastically from southern part to northern part of the contry. Due to lifestyle pressure nowadays people prefer easy short way of cooking food rather spending too much time on cooking. Rapid urbanisation is also one of the reasons for people to buy such products. Snack foods comprise a very large variety of items including potato chips, crackers, nuts and extruded snacks, among others (Harper, 1981). Snack food extrusion includes subjecting selected raw material to a variety of complex physical processes to yield snacks with varied shapes and textures (White, 1994).

The RTE market in India was expected to expand to reach Rs. 2,900 crore by 2015, according to an analysis done by Tata Strategic Management Group (TSMG). The products may vary from noodles, pasta, masala packages, stuffed paratha, etc. and many more. There are many regional players who are making foray into ready-to-eat segment. Many national and international players like Nestle, Pepsico, ITC, Haldirams, Cavinkare, are already in Indian market with their products.

1. Introduction

Milk and milk products constitute essential dietary components for a vast majority of the population. India with annual production of more than 135.6 million tonnes has emerged as leading milk producing nation. The per capita per day availability of milk in India is more than 290 g. Buffalo milk accounts for 57% of the total milk produced in India. Ethnic dairy products account for 90% of all dairy products consumed (Aneja et al., 2002). Many health benefits have been attributed to fermented dairy products and probiotic microorganisms (Salminen et al., 1998). The market for functional foods, nutraceuticals, wellness foods and beverages is fast growing. The harmful effects of synthetic drinks have propelled health conscious consumers to go for natural and traditional drinks. In search of better returns, the Indian dairy industry is widening its focus to include traditional milk products, and these are emerging as new profit centres for the organised sector.

Traditional dairy products have several advantages. They require low capital investment and give high profit margin. They are more appealing to the Indian palate. Dahi or curd is the most popular indigenous fermented dairy product. There are numerous references to dahi in vedic literature. The Prevention of Food Adulteration Act (Anon, 1976) describes dahi as a product obtained from pasteurized or boiled milk by souring (natural or otherwise), using harmless lactic acid or other bacterial cultures. Indian dahi and its western counterpart yoghurt differ considerably in terms of cultures used and their bouquet and flavour profiles (Aneja et al., 2002). The major flavor compound in dahi is diacetyl. Dahi made from buffalo milk has a firm body and white glossy appearance, with a cream layer on top. Mixed mesophilic cultures of Lactococcus lactis subsp. lactis, Lactococcus lactis subsp. cremoris, Lactococcus lactis subsp diacetylactis along with Leuconostoc species are grown together for production of dahi.

1. Introduction

There is a general consensus that fruit and vegetable consumption is a key factor for a balanced diet. Globally, majority of people consistently are consuming less than the daily recommended fruit and vegetable requirement. Even in developed nations e.g., Australia, Canada, Europe, UK and USA, researchers have concluded that there is large gap between actual and recommended consumption of both fruits and vegetables despite decades of concern and publicity while resultant outcomes were short-lived. In a study from 52 low and middle-income countries 77.6% of men and 78.4% of women consumed less than the minimum recommended servings of fruits and vegetables. Same study reported 74% low fruit and vegetable consumption among adults in India (Hall et al., 2009). In India, recent studies on the fruit and vegetable intake amongst urban residents was reported as 265 g per day as against 400 g per dayof fruits and vegetables excluding potatoes and other starchy tubers, that is recommended by the World Health Organization (WHO, 2008).

Epidemiological studies conducted in recent years have indicated a positive correlation between the consumption of fruits and vegetables and prevention of cancer and cardiovascular diseases. Health-promoting functional characteristics of vegetables are mainly attributable to their functional bioactive constituents. These effects can be listed as antioxidant activity, cholesterol-bindingcapacity, antidiabetic activity and angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE) inhibitory activity. Studies conducted in cell culture models and animal models have revealed that bioactive compounds of plant foods, including soybean, hawthorn fruit, tea, buckwheat, oats, onion, garlic, almond, and vegetable juice, composed of tomato watercress, parsley, carrots, celery, lettuce, beets and spinach, have cholesterol-lowering activity (El-Shatanovi et al., 2012; Vadivel et al., 2011).

Saccharides : A monosaccharide sugar or combination of sugars is called saccharides.

Saccharification : The process of breaking a complex carbohydrate (starch or cellulose) into its monosaccharide components is called saccharification.

Saccharimeter : A device (polarimeter) used for measuring the amount of sugar in a solution is called saccharimeter. It is also known as saccharometer. It is a hydrometer with a special scale.

1. Introduction

Antioxidants are considered an important class of nutraceuticals which are associated with health improving properties. Antioxidants are compounds which when present in foods at concentrations lower than an oxidizable substrate, markedly delay or prevent the oxidation of substrate (Halliwell, 1999). They are increasingly applied in food systems to retard the oxidation process, particularly in lipid containing foods (Droge, 2002; Lee et al., 2004). The commercially available solutions to counter food oxidation are predominated by synthetic antioxidants such as butylated hydroxyanisole (BHA), butylated hydroxytoluene (BHT) and tertiary butyl hydroquinone (TBHQ), among others, which are increasingly rejected by consumers and legitimized by regulators due to long term health implications (Park et al., 2001). As a consequence, the development and utilization of natural antioxidants as alternatives to synthetic ones have attracted global interest among researchers.

The use of spices and herbs in foods was known since ancient times to modify or to improve the flavor. However, the antioxidant properties of only some of the spices have been recognized. Different spices and their extracts such as turmeric, ginger, fennel, rosemary, and sage, among others, are reported to possess very high antioxidant properties, owing to the content of biologically active compounds, which enables their food application (Madhavi et al., 1996). Exploitation of natural antioxidants in consumer goods is increasingly accepted and will gain momentum due to the rise of green consumerism. In this chapter, an attempt has been made to provide an insight into natural antioxidants and colors. Beginning with the source distribution of natural antioxidants, followed by review of extraction methods for their isolation from plant based matrices and bio-preservative properties in vegetable oils to delay rancidity. Lastly, a thorough collection of literature pertaining natural colors has been presented to potentiate the application of clean label ingredients in food systems. The application of natural antioxidants and colors in food products can vouch the food safety with value addition in terms of their nutraceutical properties.

Introduction

Barley is an important cereal crop grown all over the world and is used mainly for feed and malt purposes and little for human food. Barley is the world’s oldest grain, as evidenced by discoveries in ancient cities in the Middle East and North Africa. It has been cultivated for about 8,000 years, and today is the world’s fourth largest cereal crop. Considerable evidence is available that points to the role of barley as sustaining food source in the evolution of humans. Additionally, alcoholic beverages of various types and fermented foods prepared from barley are commonly referred to in the ancient literature. As other food crops (wheat, rice, corn and rye) became more abundant, barley was relegated to the status of “poor man’s bread”. In the United states, barley used as food is 1.5%, as animal feed 65% and in malt and alcohol production 30% (Newman and Newman, 2006). In 1991, barley used as food in European countries was even lower (0.3%) than the United States. In contrast, during the same time period food was the largest for barley in Morocco (61%), China (62%), India (73%), and Ethiopia (79%). However, current consumer interest in nutrition and human health may help restore barley’s status in the human diet. Nutritional qualities of barley have been known since ancient times. For example, Ajgaonkar 1972 described how ancient Indian physicians effectively stabilized type II diabetics some 2400 years ago. Treatment was remarkable simple and not really different from recommendations that are given to diabetic patients today, i.e., lose weight, change diet, and increase exercise.

The selection and management of ingredients are fundamental to producing consistent, safe, and high-quality ice cream. This chapter provides an overview of the principal ingredients used in ice cream mixes and explains their selection criteria, approximate composition, functionality, storage requirements, and handling practices. It considers dairy ingredients, sweeteners, stabilizers, emulsifiers, flavours, colours, inclusions, and other formulation components. Ingredient quality directly influences processing performance, sensory properties, shelf life, and product cost. The chapter also highlights incoming-material quality checks and common ingredient-related defects. By understanding ingredient functionality and quality specifications, manufacturers can improve formulation accuracy, process consistency, product performance, and overall manufacturing efficiency.