eChapters

16.1 Introduction

Food safety is most important issue in today's global environment. To safeguard food supply is a very difficult and challenging responsibility, as a consequence of which the world's largest food companies, retailers, and manufacturers have placed very high food safety standards. Although the safety of food has improved exponentially but progress is uneven and food borne outbreaks due to microbial contamination, pesticides, antibiotics chemicals and toxins are common in many countries. International trade statistics (2007) by World Trade Organization (WTO) reported that Europe has accounted for 46% of world exports of agricultural products, where food represents 80% of agricultural exports. The trading of contaminated food among countries increases the risk for outbreaks and consequently, health risks due to microbial pathogens in food are of major concern to all governments.

Biosensors are an important option in the agricultural and food sectors to control production processes and ensure food quality and safety by dependable, fast and cost effective methods. Biosensors have plenty of advantages over conventional analytical tools since they offer advantages in size, cost, inherent specificity, selectivity, rapid response, accuracy and sensitivity. Food microbiologists are always in search of rapid and reliable automated systems for the detection of biological activity. Biosensors provide sensitive, miniaturized systems that can be used to detect unwanted microbial activity or the presence of a biologically active compound, such as glucose or a pesticide. Immunodiagnostics and enzyme biosensors are two of the leading technologies that have had the greatest impact on the food industry. The use of these two systems has reduced the time for detection of pathogens such as Salmonella to 24 hour and has provided detection of biological compounds such as cholesterol or chymotrypsin. The another useful application for biosensors, is detection of genetically modified organisms (GMO), since several countries have laws regulating the commercialization of GMO products and their derivatives. Biosensors are also useful in the implementation of hazard analysis and critical control points (HACCP) plans by verifying process developments and correcting errors in due time. There is joint application of Biosensor technologies and nanotechnologies in many food and agricultural applications such as the development of nano-scale tools for biosafety, nanoscale compounds for food packaging, and nano-sensors for pathogen detection in animals and plants. These are helpful tools in the detection and control of potential food contaminants by the agricultural and food industries.

Food Plant Hygiene

A. I.mportance of Food Plant Hygiene:

1. Ensures the Safety and Quality of Food Products: Proper hygiene practices within food processing facilities play a critical role in safeguarding the safety and quality of food products. By adhering to stringent hygiene protocols, including thorough cleaning, sanitation, and preventive measures, facilities can effectively prevent the contamination of food products by harmful microorganisms, chemicals, or physical hazards. This helps minimize the risk of foodborne illnesses and ensures that consumers receive safe and wholesome food products. Additionally, maintaining cleanliness and hygiene in food proce

1. INTRODUCTION

Canopy management is the manipulation of tree canopy to optimize its production potential with excellent quality fruits. In many fruit crops, increase in production with enhanced fruit quality is obtained by managing canopies of short statured trees. Small trees capture and utilize the sunlight properly and results into better fruit production.

The fruit growers desire to regulate the growth and development of their trees in a scientific manner. This is because it is not always wise to allow a plant to develop naturally, since unwanted portions may develop which may affect the production. The removal of unwanted parts of plant is thus known as pruning. The practice of pruning as and when performed in an appropriate manner, keeps the plant in such shape and condition as to yield fruits of desired quality.

Canopy management depends on the nature and growth pattern of plant, number of plants /ha and pruning techniques used by the farmers in their fields. Pruning should be done when trees are young to establish their basic shapes and sizes, and continued as trees mature. Trees that grow too close together shade out the lower canopy portions and in turn decrease their fruit setting. These trees are required to be pruned to allow the light to reach the top and lower sides of trees. Pruning is done either to encourage the growth (thinning) or to reduce the tree size (heading back). Thinning of bearing trees encourages vegetative growth, and removes interior branches, encouraging the outward growth of plants. Heading back reduces the outward canopy growth through topping and hedging of branches.

    1.    Control points are the points in the food processing chain where it is possible to control or remove hazards.

    2.    Critical control points are the control points in the processing chain where it is essential to a hazard, usually because there is no later step at which to establish control.

    3.    Preventative measures are the actions and activities needed to remove hazards or control them by reducing them to acceptable levels.

    4.    Critical limits for critical control points are measurements such as temperature and time, that must be met, or characteristics such as appearance and texture. Critical limits need to be validated.

    5.    Monitoring is the regular measurement or observation of a critical control point to ensure it is not beyond its critical limits.

    6.    Take corrective action to bring the process back under control before the problem (‘deviation’) leads to a safety hazard. Consider proper management (disposition) of any adversely affected product.

    7.    Verification procedures are tests and programmes that make sure the HACCP system working properly

    8.    Record keeping and documentation systems must meet the needs of the business and be adequate to show that the food safety programme is working.

Pineapple botanically called Annanas comosus L. is basically believed to be native to Brazil and thereafter it spread to worldwide over many centuries from its centre of origin. It is a subtropical fruit crops requiring humid climatic conditions with slightly acidic soils for its favourable growth and development. In India it reached around 1548AD. The juicy fruits are good source of Vit-A, B and C along with micronutrient Calcium. A single unit of pineapple fruits is reported to contain moisture-85%, sugar-13per cent, protein-0.6%,mineral mater-0.05%, fibre 0.3%, Ca-0.02%, phosphorus- 0.01per cent iron- 0.09.0 acids- 0.6%, Vit-A (60IU/100g), riboflavin (120mg/100g) and Vitamin-C (63mg/100g). All parts of pineapple are utilizable from delicacy of fruit for table purpose to making fabric Pina in some country like Philippine. Indeed the dry waste after juice extraction can also be used as good feed for cattle. India is such a country blessed with diverse agro climatic zones and eight classification of agro-climatic zone has been officially classified for suitability of different fruit crops based on their climatic requirement. One of those classifications is North Eastern subtropical Humid Zones which comprises of eight states namely Assam, Arunachal Pradesh, Manipur, Meghalaya, Nagaland, Sikkim and Tripura. Manipur is a land-locked state situated in the North Eastern Region of India. It is encircled by 9 hill ranges in all sides and has a small valley in the center (the capital Imphal is located in this valley). The State has 352 km long international border with Myanmar to the south-east and 502 km long border with the adjacent states of Nagaland on the North, Cachar district of Assam on the West and Chin Hills (Myanmar) and Mizoram on the South and the South-west and Surma Tract and upper Chindwin of Myanmar on the East. Manipur is next to Assam among NE states in respect of area of Pineapple cultivation. Owing to conducive soil and climate, Manipur is one of the major hubs for pineapple cultivation among the north east states where because of its popularity, it has surplus in area and production compare to other fruit crops in the state.

Abstract

The present study was conducted to develop ready to eat extruded snack food based on germinated flour of wheat, Bengal gram and green gram. A Central Composite Rotatable Design (CCRD) for five variables at five levels was used for experimental combinations and optimization of the process parameters. Experimental design with green gram flour (5 to 20%) and bengal gram flour (1535%) in wheat flour, moisture content (14-18%), screw speed (200-300 rpm) and barrel temperature (126-134°C) as independent variables having 32 different combinations of snack formulations that were studied using response surface methodology to investigate the effect of these variables on product responses (Lateral expansion, bulk density, Water absorption index, water solubility index and sensory characteristics). Sensory analysis was carried out of all extrudates for texture, color and overall acceptability. Multiple regression equations were obtained to describe the effects of each variable on product responses. The optimum operating conditions for development of germinated wheat, green gram and Bengal gram flour extrudate were 132°C of barrel temperature, 275 rpm of screw speed, 17 % offeed moisture, 6.5% of green gram flour and 23.1% of Bengal gram flour. The responses predicted by the software for these optimum process conditions resulted lateral expansion of 169.59%, bulk density, 0.263g/cm³; water solubility index, 19.08; water absoption index, 13.88g/g; and overall acceptability value of 7.38.

1. INTRODUCTION

Annuals are the group of plants that complete their life cycle in one season or in one year during which they grow, flower and produce seed; and after this they wither out. A true annual (like zinnia) is a plant that will grow from seeds, flower, produce seeds and die in one season. Zinnias provide a succession of flowers for summer colour in any sunny location with good soil drainage

The term annual when applied to herbaceous ornamentals refers to plants that are grown for only one season. A true annual completes its life cycle (bears seed) in one season and has an extended bloom span lasting (in most cases) throughout the summer. Some plants that we use like annuals in the garden actually are herbaceous perennial plants that bloom the first season but are unable to survive the winter climate.

Some varieties will self-sow or naturally reseed themselves. This may be undesirable in many flowers because the parents of this seed are unknown and hybrid characteristics get lost. Plants will scatter everywhere instead of growing in their designated spot. Examples: Alyssum, Petunias and Impatiens. Impatiens flowers are currently the most popular annuals and are unsurpassed for abundant flowers in a shady garden. Some perennials, which are plants that live from year to year are classed with annuals because they are not winter-hardy and must be set out every year. Examples are begonias and snapdragons.

Typically, the annuals we think are as loving the heat of summer, but there are some popular annual plants that prefer the cool of spring and fall. Examples: pansies, snapdragons, ornamental cabbage and kale. These plants actually grow more lush and vigorous when the weather is cool not hot and dry; therefore, they are often offered for sale in early spring.

1. Introduction Millets are the Nutri-cereals belonging to the Poaceae family and are classified into two major categories: major and minor, depending on their size and nutritional composition. Most millet crops are indigenous to India and are referred to as “nutri-cereals” since they contain most of the nutrients needed for the body to function properly. Millets such as Sorghum (Jowar), Pearl Millet (Bajra), and Finger Millet (Ragi) are the millets that come under the category of major millets. In contrast, the minor millets category includes Foxtail Millet (Kakun), Proso Millet (Cheena), Kodo Millet, Barnyard Millet (Sanwa), Little Millet (Kutki), Brown top millet including two pseudo millet that includes Buckwheat (Kuttu) and Amaranth (Chaulai) (Saini et al., 2021).

Introduction
Horticulture, the science and art of cultivating fruits, vegetables, and ornamental plants, is a vital component of agriculture that contributes significantly to food security, economic growth, and environmental sustainability. This chapter provides a comprehensive overview of horticulture, exploring its various branches, including fruit and vegetable production, floriculture, landscape design, and greenhouse management. Horticulture is unique in its integration of scientific principles, artistic design, and business acumen, making it a dynamic and multifaceted field.
The chapter begins by introducing the fundamental concepts of horticulture and its importance in modern agriculture. It delves into the specifics of fruit and vegetable production, emphasizing the techniques and practices that enhance yield and quality. Floriculture and landscape design are also discussed, highlighting the aesthetic and environmental benefits of ornamental plants. The chapter further explores post-harvest handling and storage, crucial aspects that ensure the longevity and marketability of horticultural products.
In addition to traditional practices, the chapter addresses modern horticultural techniques, such as greenhouse management, which plays a crucial role in extending growing seasons and improving crop quality. Sustainable horticultural practices are also emphasized as key strategies for addressing global challenges like climate change and food security.
Horticulture is a branch of agriculture that focuses on the cultivation, production, and management of plants, particularly fruits, vegetables, ornamental plants, and flowers. This chapter explores various aspects of horticulture, including an introduction to horticulture, fruit and vegetable production, greenhouse management, floriculture and landscape design, and post-harvest handling and storage. Horticulture plays a vital role in agriculture, encompassing the science and art of growing plants for food, aesthetics, and environmental enhancement. This chapter delves into the exciting world of horticulture, exploring the cultivation and management of fruits, vegetables, ornamental plants, and flowers. Horticulture combines scientific knowledge, practical skills, and artistic creativity to maximize plant growth, yield, and aesthetic appeal. By studying horticulture, we can gain insights into the principles and practices that contribute to successful fruit and vegetable production, greenhouse management, floriculture and landscape

    1.    Asepsis is a process of 
        a)    Removal of microorganisms    
        b)    Keeping out microorganisms
        c)    Hindering the growth & activity of microorganisms    
        d)    Killing the microorganisms
    2.    Self-decomposition of the food is prevented by
        a)    Inactivation of enzymes    b)    Delay of chemical reactions
        c)    a & b    d)    None
    3.    Commercially available fruit beverages are generally pasteurized at 
        a)    85°C for 25 to  30 min    b)    62.5°C for 25 to  30 min
        c)    71.1°C for 15 to  30 sec    d)    92.1°C for 15 to  30 min

Abiotic Stress Tolerance: The ability of plants to withstand and adapt to nonliving environmental stressors, such as drought, salinity, or extreme temperatures. Afforestation and Reforestation: Afforestation involves planting new forests in previously non-forested areas, while reforestation involves restoring degraded or deforested lands with trees to sequester carbon. Agrarian Society: A society characterized by agriculture as the primary means of subsistence and economic activity. Agrarian: Pertaining to the cultivation of land, agriculture, or rural life. Agribusiness: The commercial activities, including production, processing, and distribution, related to agriculture and farming. Agricultural Chemistry: A branch of chemistry that focuses on chemical processes and substances related to agriculture, including soil chemistry, fertilizer composition, and pesticide development. Agricultural Diversification: The strategy of expanding the range of crops, livestock, or other agricultural activities in a rural area to increase income and food security. Agricultural Economics: A branch of economics that focuses on the production, distribution, and consumption of agricultural goods and services, as well as the economic factors and policies that influence agricultural markets. Agricultural Extension: The application of scientific research and new technologies to agricultural practices through education and advisory services. Agricultural Innovation: The process of developing and adopting new ideas, practices, and technologies in agriculture. Agricultural Machinery: Various mechanical devices and equipment designed for use in farming, such as tractors, plows, and harvesters. Agricultural Subsidies: Financial incentives provided by governments to farmers or agricultural producers to support their production, stabilize prices, or achieve other economic or social objectives. Agriculture: The science and practice of cultivating crops, raising livestock, and managing resources for food production and other agricultural products. Agroecology: The scientific discipline that applies ecological principles to the design and management of sustainable agricultural systems, focusing on biodiversity, nutrient cycling, and reduced environmental impact.

I. POST HARVEST DISEASES

A. Post-Harvest Diseases of Fruits

Food is composed of three main constituents viz; carbohydrates, proteins and fats and their derivatives. In addition to these constituents, inorganic mineral elements and diverse organic compounds like vitamins, pigments, flavouring compounds, enzymes, and acids are also present. Carbohydrates, proteins, fats and vitamins are organic in nature. The percentage of water is large in certain foods. The variation in structure, texture, colour, flavour and nutritive value is because of the varying proportions and arrangements of these constituents.

Carbohydrates are important in foods as a major source of energy, to impart crucial textural properties, and as dietary fiber which influences physiological processes. Digestible carbohydrates, which are converted into monosaccharides, which are absorbed, provide metabolic energy. Carbohydrates account for more than 70% of the caloric value of the human diet. It is recommended that all persons should limit calories from fat to not more than 30% and that most of the carbohydrate calories should come from starch. Non-digestible polysaccharides (all other than starch) comprise the major portion of dietary fiber.

Introduction

The term pesticide refers to any chemical or mixture of chemicals intended for preventing, attracting, repelling, controlling or regulating a pest, including unwanted species of plants and animals during the production, shipment, transit, storage, processing or distribution of any food or agricultural commodity. The term includes compounds classified as insecticides, fungicides, herbicides, accaricides, rodenticides, plant growth regulators, sprouting inhibitors, chemosterilants, desiccants etc. The term excludes substances like animal drugs and food additives. Pesticides are chemicals used to destroy or control weeds, insects or other pests. The term pesticide residue refers to the remnants of the pesticide after weathering and it consists of the parent molecule and the degradation products which are toxicologically significant. In general, the pesticides, by virtue of their inherent toxic nature are recommended to be used as per Good Agricultural Practices (GAP) only. If GAP is not followed, contamination of the produce with the residues may pose significant health risk to consumers, non target organisms, biota and environment as a whole. When a pesticide is used for pest control purposes, they may reside in the form of metabolites.

Pesticide residues occur as the leftover of any pesticide after its application for pest control and it includes the parent compound and its toxic metabolites. Pesticide residue analysis may be defined as qualitative and quantitative analysis of samples drawn from agricultural field, market and environment for pesticides and toxic metabolites. Pesticide residues are invariably present in micro – quantities and generally estimated at ppm/ ppb levels. After application of the diluted spray solution, they are present at sub microgram levels in the substrate and hence their estimation at ppm or ppb levels is very cumbersome and need to be performed with utmost care. Moreover, the residue data generated should be accurate, reliable and reproducible. The level of residue in any edible commodity has to be below their prescribed maximum residue limits (MRL) value for market acceptance and below maximum permissible intake (MPI) for safety to consumers. Pesticide residue data are mainly utilised by regulatory authorities for estimation of MRLs and for assessing impact on human health and environment, particularly their adverse effect on non-target organisms. The detection of the pesticide residues must be confirmed beyond doubt and confirmation by GC-MS/MS or LC-MS/MS is generally acceptable. Since pesticide residues include parent compounds, isomers and toxic metabolites, appropriate methods of detection should be selected so that all the components are measured separately. Environmental samples/ market usually contain residues of large number of pesticides, for which multi residue methods are required for estimation/screening of such samples.

Revolutionizing skin cancer detection
The diagnostic process for skin cancer is evolving. Physicians have in the past relied upon physical exams to be followed by scanning and biopsies taking anywhere between 15 days to return results. Although most abnormalities turn out to be non-cancerous, this is distressing to patients and contributes to healthcare costs. Additionally, certain growths that turn out to be cancerous remain undiagnosed since they have not been visible.
Breakthrough startup Damae Medical is set to reverse this process. The startup has developed an advanced probe that is able to take 3D images of the skin to unveil the full extent of abnormalities in real time. This enables doctors to diagnose in an instant, enabling improved personalized treatment. When an operation is required only diseased tissue is removed to prevent unnecessary treatments and improved outcomes in patients.
The Origins in the Institut d’Optique
The beginnings of Damae Medical can be traced to Palaiseau-based Institut d’Optique where in 2013 two photonics students envisaged potential in an emerging imaging tech. Together with the inventor himself in 2014, they cofounded Damae Medical by taking an exclusive license to the core family of patents held by three partner institutions. While this contract was beneficial in launching the company to an early growth spurt, in the long run created difficulty in exercising control. This was resolved by taking an equity-forcontrol purchase in 2019 by Damae to acquire the foundational patent

We get energy from food. We need energy for all the activities which we get by eating. The body structures as muscles, organs and bones are composed of the nutrients contained in food which are absorbed by the body.

Nutritional requirement of the major nutrients

Nutrients are the substances which are found in food and drive biological activity. They are essential for the human body. These are categorized into proteins, fats, carbohydrates (sugars, dietary fiber), vitamins and minerals (Sugishima, 2019). They perform the vital functions like building all parts of the body as muscle, bone, teeth and blood. Out of the 20 different kinds of amino acids that make up proteins nine are not synthesized in the body and are therefore called essential amino acids. These essential amino acids have to be supplemented through food. High-protein, low-carbohydrate diets have been found to be effective.Protein is an important component of every cell in the body. Large part of hair and nails are made up of proteins. The human body uses protein to build and repair the tissues, helps in making enzymes hormones and other body chemicals. Protein is an important building block of bones, muscles, cartilage, skin and blood.

Introduction

Food and water safety is a public health concern. “It is health that is real wealth and not pieces of gold and silver” is a famous quote by Mahatma Gandhi. To provide good health and to maintain it properly for all citizens, the country need to assure the quality and safety of food consumed by it's population (Attrey, 2016). Apart from nutrition and taste, a more important part of food is the safety standards during manufacture, storage, distribution, sale and import. Food safety is particularly important in India, where an inordinately high percentage of population suffer from malnutrition and food borne diseases (Bahuguna, 2016). Food borne diseases in India have increased the frequency of mortality and morbidity. Around 5.82 crore cases of food borne diseases and 3.51 lakh food associated deaths were reported in 2010. Nowadays the consumption of unsafe food is being considered as an alarming threat to the growing global food markets. Adulteration and synthetic milk in India, powdered infant formula with melamine in China and adulteration of beef in Europe are a few examples. These issues can be resolved to a great extent, through appropriate food laws and policies. A country should not only possess appropriate statutory, regulatory legislations, policies in place for the su-pply of safe and good quality food at all times, but also should assure that the same is imple-mented seriously (Attrey, 2017).

Apart from health, food safety is vital for economic growth and progress as well. In India, the food processing industry holds tremendous opportunity. It has high employment potential, can boost exports of agro-products out of the country and also provide better returns to farmers for their produce. The concept of food quality and food laws is not totally new in India because food was considered an important aspect of healthy living even in ancient India. India took an important step towards building a safe food culture a decade ago by enacting the Food Safety and Standards (FSS) Act. In one stroke, it brought about a paradigm shift in the way we look at food safety regulations in India. Food Safety and Standards Authority of India (FSSAI) are mandated under Food Safety and Standards Act 2006 to protect people from this threat. In its role of a food regulator, FSSAI can be proud that it touches the lives of each of the 1.3 billion people in the country. More than just reaching the people, the watchful eye of FSSAI is assuring them that the food they get in any form, raw or processed is safe to consume (Agarwal, 2016).

1. Introduction

Fruit products have their unique identities having large content of micronutrients, polyphenols, vitamins, flavonoids and other nutritional compounds. Characteristic appearance and flavors distinguish among various fruit based products like juice, puree, jam, jelly, squash and other several varieties. Main concern of this fruit processing industry is the stability of the products throughout the post processing storage. Thermal treatment as mean of preservation of these products is the common process implemented so far. It ensures the safety of the product but lacks in retaining the nutritional intact that like of fresh fruit. Today’s consumer demand for minimally processed fruit products and “natural” fruit products tend to think of alternative thermal processing.

High pressure processing (HPP), a relatively new concept compared to conventional thermal processing, also sometimes known as high hydrostatic pressure (HHP), or ultra high pressure (UHP) processing, is a non-thermal food processing method that subjects liquid or solid foods, with or without packaging, to pressures ranging between 50 and 1000 MPa. HPP has already been established itself as an alternative to thermal processing. In food processing it is of great interest due to its ability to inactivate food borne microorganisms and enzymes, at low temperature, without the need for chemical preservatives and it is less detrimental than thermal processes to low molecular weight food compounds such as flavoring agents, pigments, vitamins, etc., as covalent bonds are not affected by pressure. Pressure-treated foods have sensory properties similar to fresh products, which is a major advantage in fruit processing as it matches consumer demand for healthy, nutritious and ‘‘natural’’ products. HPP of fruit products offers the chance of producing food of high quality, greater safety and increased shelf life (Hayashi 1989; Gould 1996; Butz and Tauscher 1998).

1. Introduction

Storage is an important part of any food grain processing chain. Storage of raw and processed food grain has been used by humans since time immemorial as a prerequisite for insuring food security due to off time availability, and for holding seed grain for long periods (Pande and Mishra, 2012). After harvesting grains may be required to be stored for long periods before these are marketed or used as food or seed. The grain storage is mainly carried out for three purposes viz (i) to retain a supply of food (ii) to service a trading system and (iii) to retain seed for planting the following season (Hall, 1980). Storage is, therefore, carried out by the producer, trader, processor, and the exporter and at all these levels the methods adopted affect the quality of food stuffs. The length of time grains can be safely stored will depend on the condition it was harvested and the type of storage facility being utilized. Grain storage and handling is a major concern for food grain growers and processers worldwide (Mohan et al., 2011; Pande and Mishra, 2012). Depending upon the condition and uses food grains may be stored in different storage structures using traditional or modern storage methods. Different storage structures are used by farmers with the traditional names like Gumma, Oliya and Jute bag. Caswell (1973) recorded 50 to 60% of insect damage on food grain after six months of traditional storage. A typical range of storage methods encountered in tropics and subtropics region is given in Table 1.

1. Introduction

India is a land of large varieties of fruits and vegetables due to its vast soil and climatic diversity. India is the second largest producer of fruits and vegetables in the world, with an annual production of fruits 45.5 Million tonnes and vegetables 90.8 Million tonnes. It contributes 10.23% and 14.45% of the total world production of fruits and vegetables (F&V) respectively (NHB, 2010). Though fruits and vegetables are grown only on 7–8% of gross cultivated area, these contribute more than 18.8% of the gross value of agricultural output and 52% export earnings from total agricultural produce. These have a high export potential of 20-30 times more foreign exchange per unit area than cereals due to higher yields and higher price available in the international market (Sen et al., 2012). According to estimates, the per capita consumption of fruits and vegetables in India is only around 46g and 130g which are far below the stipulation of a minimum of 92g and 300g respectively as recommended by the Indian Council of Medical Research and National Institute of Nutrition. The low availability is mainly due to considerably high post-harvest losses. About 15-20% of the fruits and vegetables are wasted every year in the country, due to poor post-harvest management and lack of infrastructural facilities for processing and storage, amounting to a revenue loss of over Rs. 625 billion.

The sensorial, nutritional, and organoleptic quality of fresh produce starts deteriorating after harvest as a result of soon after harvest the altered plant metabolism and microbial growth. The quality deterioration is the result of produce respiration and transpiration, senescence, ripening-associated processes, wound-initiated reactions, development of postharvest disorders, microbial proliferation leading to postharvest quality loss. Therefore, it is necessary to understand the respiration and ripening processes and the physiological and biochemical changes during ripening. The best way to reduce respiratory metabolism is to reduce the storage temperature. All biological processes proceed more slowly at lower temperature (Yahia, 2007). In general, O₂ levels must be reduced to less than 10 % to see a reduction in the rate of respiration. Respiration rate is temperature dependent; so, as the temperature reduces the amount of oxygen required also drops. Therefore, oxygen levels must be substantially reduced at low temperature for it to affect the rate of respiration. It must however, be ensured that O₂ levels do not fall below extinction point as anaerobic respiration and decay may occur. Tolerance to low O₂ varies between species and cultivars and is also time dependent. Commodities may be able to tolerate low O₂ for short periods of time. Low O₂ can also be tolerated when CO₂ is low.