eChapters

1. INTRODUCTION

Food fermentation is the oldest method of food preservation and have originated several million years ago. It plays an important role in ensuring the food security of millions of people around the world particularly marginalized and vulnerable groups. It is relatively efficient, low energy consuming process which needs no refrigeration or other energy intensive food preservation technologies but increases the shelf-life of foods. Fermentation ensures not only increased shelf-life and microbiological safety of food but may also make some foods more digestible and lower or eliminate the toxicity of substrate like cassava.

The food fermentation technology utilizes the ability of growth of microorganisms on various substrates for the production of a variety of fermented foods, beverages and pickles like bread, beer, cheese, idli, tempeh, miso, sauerkraut, fermented sausages, etc. Fermented foods are popular throughout the world since antiquity and in some regions these are the major component of the diet of millions of individuals. Indigenous fermented foods such as bread, cheese and wine have been prepared and consumed since ages and have occupied important place in culture, religion and tradition of people all over the world.

With increasing food production, availability and accessibility the global agro-industrial food system has improved.However, malnutrition, biodiversity loss and climate change are newer challenges. The best solution to this is the utilization of indigenous and traditional crops which will bring a transformative change in the food system. There is a need to look into the development of smallholder producers. The agro-industrial food system has improved the food supply and has made way for significant trade-offs with agro-biodiversity, dietary diversity, environmental sustainability and socio-economic stability mainly amongst the rural poor. Now is the time to mainstream the underutilized indigenous and traditional crops into the food system. This will provide opportunities to develop a sustainable and healthy food system.It will also help towards the societal goals which include employment creation, wellbeing and environmental sustainability.

Importance of Traditional Foods

Traditional convenience food, or tertiary processed food, is commercially prepared food designed for ease of consumption. Products designated as convenience foods are often prepared food stuffs that can be sold as hot, ready-to-eat dishes; as room-temperature, shelf-stable products; or as refrigerated or frozen products that require minimal preparation (typically just heating).

These products are often sold in portion controlled, single serve packaging designed for portability for “on-the-go” eating. Convenience food can include products such as candy; beverages such as soft drinks, juices and milk; fast food; nuts, fruits and vegetables in fresh or preserved states; processed meats and cheeses; and canned products such as soups and pasta dishes.

Traditional Foods

Preparation of Vadagam and Appalam

Vadagam is a traditional product mostly prepared from rice flour and also sago. It is an deep fat fried product and consumed as a side dish in the meals. Papad also known as appalam or papadam in South India, is essentially a thin wafer like product, usually circular in shape rolled from a dough made out of pulse, cereals, edible vegetable oil, alkaline and mucilaginous additives. It is normally consumed in toasted or fried form. In India, papad has been associated and deeply entwined with social customs/ rituals and has been developed into culinary art.

Introduction

Food is a culture, emotion, hospitality and prestige which is closely knitted with tradition. Traditional knowledge is a community based functional knowledge system which is developed, preserved and refined by generations through continuous interaction, observation and experimentation with their surrounding environment. It includes beliefs, values, and practices gathered from the practical experience of older generation, and its whole function is survival and development of culture of people. Traditional foods, originated from ancestral kitchens are developed through ages, invented, modified, utilised and evolved to improve nutritional and social wellbeing of the people around the world. Most of them are culture specific, region specific, environment specific, community specific and season specific. These foods are socially, culturally and economically important and provide food security, enhance livelihood and improve nutritional and social wellbeing of people. Food culture arises out of the place of a people’s origin and so traditional local foods hold the potential to bind and stabilise communities and enable a cultural continuity through conserving their histories. Indian cuisine is represented as a wide spectrum of food cultures with distinctive regional differences and preferences (Achaya, 1998).

Traditional food-preservation methods reflect generations of practical knowledge concerning food safety, storage and seasonal availability. Although commonly performed at the household level, these methods are supported by scientific principles such as reducing water activity, lowering pH, inactivating enzymes and restricting microbial growth. Blanching, fermentation, sun drying, increasing solute concentration, pickling, smoking and curing preserve foods through different combinations of heat, dehydration, acidity, beneficial microorganisms and antimicrobial compounds. Their materials and equipment are generally accessible, making them suitable for home-scale application. The chapter explains the principle, mechanism, application and nutritional implications of each method while showing their continuing relevance in contemporary food systems.

20.1 Introduction
The average Indian diet, which is predominantly vegetarian, relies heavily on milk as a source of animal protein. Ancient Indians developed more stable milk products to preserve its nutritional value due to the high ambient temperatures in the Indian subcontinent. Therefore, the ethnic dairy foods, which are frequently referred to as traditional or Indian indigenous milk products, have been developed over the course of centuries by utilising locally available equipment, implements, and manufacturing procedures.
20.2 Definition of Traditional Indian Dairy Products
Traditional Indian dairy products, or indigenous milk products of India, encompass all milk-based items that have evolved over generations using locally sourced ingredients and traditional cooking methods. With advancements in mechanized manufacturing technologies and unit operations, these diverse indigenous milk products are set to establish a robust presence in the industrial landscape. Across India, a variety of milk-based sweets, beloved by people of all ages and genders, hold significant cultural importance, often being integral to celebrations and social gatherings, highlighting their essential use of indigenous dairy ingredients.
20.3 Classification of Traditional Dairy Products
The nomenclature of Indian indigenous milk products varies across different regions due to variations in its components and manufacturing methods. Indigenous milk products can be conveniently categorised into nine main categories to facilitate a deeper understanding of their nature.

Training is a major manpower management function. No organization can afford not to train its employees, regardless of his previous education, training, and experience. He has to be introduced into the work environment of his new employer inducted and taught to perform his assigned tasks in a new milieu. Moreover, changing technology, increasing automation in offices and factories and in almost all institutions is bringing about redesigned or altered jobs. People are constantly being “trained” and retrained by the way their superiors and other employees associate them with work. 
Training is a part of management development and also a form of organizational development. The most effective managers are those who can best develop the human resources of an organization for the purpose of achieving organizational goals and objectives. If the employees perceive training as a means to achieve their personal goals at work, they will welcome such opportunities. Some essentials about training may be borne in mind and they are:

TRANSFER

A transfer is a change in job assignment. It may involve a promotion or demotion or no change at all in responsibility and status. It is a change in assignment in which the employee moves to another job at approximately the same level of responsibility, the same skill, the level of pay. Transfer is to be distinguished from promotion and demotion which imply an ascending or descending change respectively, in the hierarchy of positions. A transfer may be either temporary or permanent, depending upon the need, and may occur within a department, between departments and divisions, or between plants or officers within a company/organization.

Introduction

Commonly available food materials especially dairy products, cereals and fruits are perishable and require processing for long term storage. The methods of food storage has been known from the pre historic times and was mostly based on processing the food into a more stable form with a longer shelf life. Such processes increases the time range of food availability and in many cases improves the taste thereby, cumulatively improving the food value. One of documented method of food preservation is by fermentation and is age old. Other commonly used methods include drying, refrigeration, salting and fermentation (Luck 1985, Paulus, 1985, Christensen et al., 2003, Martindale and Schiebel, 2017).

Flavour and appeal of food has been considered as one of the important factors contributing to the demand of the food. Originally the flavours were largely plant derived, current industrial practices largely utilise synthesis by chemical reactions and subsequent extraction to achieve a uniform quality (Weckerle et al., 2006, Davidovich-Rikanati et al., 2008, Sethupathy et al., 2018). These chemicals referred to as “flavourings” are defined as compounds that enhance the taste, appeal and palatability of food. They are naturally derived or artificially synthesised compounds. Considering that many artificially synthesised chemical flavours might affect the health adversely. Industrial food research has now shifted their focus on flavourings that are naturally available (Cohen et al., 2018). Such naturally occurring flavourings are referred to as bio-flavours (de Billerbeck 2015). The ease of producing bio active compounds from microbial culture extracts has played significant role in industrial food biotechnology (Verachtert et al., 2005).

Introduction: Relation between transportation and meat quality
One of the fundamental aims of animal production system is to ensure better quality meat. Apart from various animal husbandry practices that affect the meat quality, the transportation of meat animals from farm to slaughterhouse and their handling at lairage, affect the meat quality greatly. For better meat quality, the pH of the meat should fall from normal pH 7.0 - 7.2 in live animal to pH 5.5 (ultimate pH) after slaughter at the onset of rigor-mortis. The low muscle pH is required to inhibit the microbial growth and meat tenderization (cathepsins system is activated at low pH). The ultimate muscle pH is achieved through the accumulation of lactic acid which is produced as a result of anaerobic glycolysis of glycogen. After slaughter, as the oxygen supply to muscle ceases, ATP is generated through anaerobic glycolysis of glycogen and in this process lactic acid is produced. ATP is required to keep the muscle in relaxed stage. This anaerobic glycolysis carries on till the glycogen reserve is exhausted. So, higher the glycogen reserve at the time of slaughter, longer the length of time duration of anaerobic glycolysis and higher the quantity of lactic acid production and greater the reduction of muscle pH. Hence, livestock should be transported and handled before slaughter carefully because stress during transit and in lairage could severely deplete the glycogen reserve of livestock.
The following facts should be especially taken care by the farmers raising livestocks for meat
1. Housing arrangement and design
• Any flaws/deficiencies in design, layout, cubicle size and its design, drainage, water bowls, slats, air circulation, etc. should be rectified

Transportation and distribution of fruits and vegetables are important stages   of post-harvest loss. In India,  transportation of perishable commodities is in the most precarious stage. For local market, the produce is brought either by bullock cart or tractor trollies. The long distance transportation is mainly by rails and trucks, which is very costly. The basic reason for preference to road transportation is that it takes short transit period.

Introduction Consumer demands for convenience and mildly processed meals with long shelf lives have led to unique and current developments in food packaging solutions (Dobrucka and Cierpiszewski, 2014). Additionally, the development of unique and creative packaging solutions that do not compromise food safety or quality is being fueled by the current retail trend and changing lifestyles (Dainelli et al., 2008). The widespread use of packaged meals has raised consumer demand for prepared foods like microwaveable dinners, and the growing popularity of smaller food packages all help to fuel the food industry's explosive growth in creative packaging (Restuccia et al., 2010). The rise in food-borne microbial outbreaks, which calls for the usage of packaging that possesses antimicrobial qualities while retaining food quality, is another major driver of new food packaging (Appendini and Hotchtkiss, 2002). The initial advancements in packaging were electrically powered packing equipment, flexible packaging, metallic cans, aseptic packaging, aluminium foils, and flexographic printing. A considerable movement away from metal, paperboard, and glass packaging in favour of plastic and flexible packaging was also brought about by the discovery of various materials such as polyester, polypropylene, and ethylene vinyl alcohol polymers.

Food Safety

The term “safe food” has different standards to different consumers rather than just being the food handled and prepared through proper cleaning, washing and cooking. Safe food means food prepared on clean and sanitized surfaces with equipment, utensils and dishes that also are cleaned and sanitized. Nowadays consumers are extra conscious about the safety and quality of food and for that reason food safety issues have changed, so have society’s methods for making food as safe as possible. Accordingly, “food safety” means assurance that food is acceptable for human consumption according to its intended use (FSSAI 2017).

Previous Year Questions

1. Discuss the strengths and weaknesses of Public Food Distribution system in India. (8M, IFoS-2022)

2. Describe the vicious cycle of poverty and enlist the existing policy instruments for combating malnutrition. (20M, CSE 2022)

3. Enlist and explain the efforts of the GOI in streamlining the current levels of poverty (10 marks, CS 2022)

4. Enlist and explain the salient features of Public Distribution System as per the provisions of the National Food Security Act, 2013. (10M, CSE 2022)

5. Discuss the strengths and weaknesses of public food-grain distribution system in India. (8M, IFoS 2020)

1. Introduction

Intermediate moisture foods are semi moist foods that have some of their water bound by glycerol, sorbitol, salt or certain organic acids, thus preventing the growth of many microorganisms (Stewart et al. 2001). It is now well recognized that fruits and vegetables are dehydrated to an intermediate moisture level (20-50%) (Stewart et al. 2001; Purvi et al. 2003). As the intermediate moisture products are characterized by a semi moist consistency so these foods have enough moisture content to permit easy chewing but low enough water content to prevent spoilage production of intermediate moisture foods is based on an increased scientific understanding of the chemical reactions involved in traditional food preservation methods (Purvi et al. 2003).
There will be better retention of original flavor and texture compared to fully dried products, with concomitant reduction in bulk, weight and cost of packaging, transportation and storage. Such intermediate moisture foods are more appropriate for developing countries in view of their minimal processing requirements, stability under ambient conditions, safety, convenience, ease of nutrient content adjustment, energy savings and low capital investment. They are also eminently more suited than dehydrated or canned foods for military rations (FAO, 2005).

The Hans Krebs cycle, known by different names like the citric acid or tricarboxylic acid cycle, was named after the scientist Hans Krebs. The citric acid cycle is named after the citrate product formed in the cycle. The name tricarboxylic acid is given as citrate itself, which is a tricarboxylic acid due to the presence of three carboxyl functional groups (-COOH).
The tricarboxylic acid (TCA) cycle occurs in aerobic conditions and within mitochondrial ETC, involving various sequential oxidoreductase reactions. The cycle requires Acetyl-CoA (C2 molecule) and oxaloacetate molecule (C4 molecule) to begin with the formation of a citrate molecule (C6 molecule). Acetyl-CoA is generated from the pyruvate (glycolysis), the fatty acids (lipolysis), or by oxidative deamination of specific amino acids. The complete oxidation of a glucose molecule results in the end products like energy (ATP), CO2 and H2O. A molecule of Acetyl-CoA has two carbons. It is formed from a three-carbon pyruvic acid molecule generated from the glycolysis of a sixcarbon glucose molecule. Acetyl-CoA is the substrate for this cycle and is an energy-rich molecule having a thioester bond between coenzyme A and acetic acid.
8.1 Formation of acetyl-CoA from Pyruvic Acid
Pyruvate is obtained by glycolysis or the oxidation of glucogenic amino acids. The pyruvic acid produced in the cytoplasm crosses the inner membrane of the mitochondrion to enter the mitochondrial matrix, where it undergoes oxidative decarboxylation, forming Acetyl-CoA. Acetyl-CoA carries (carrier molecule) the acetyl group to the citric acid cycle. It also links various metabolic products with the TCA cycle. Such products can be from the EMP cycle, beta-oxidation, and oxidative deamination of amino acids. Oxidative decarboxylation of pyruvic acid needs a complex enzyme system known as pyruvate dehydrogenase

Introduction

The tropical root and tuber crops are comprised of crops covering several genera. They are staple foods in many parts of the tropics, being the source of most of the daily carbohydrate intake for large populations. These carbohydrates are mostly starches found in storage organs, which may be enlarged roots, corms, rhizomes, or tubers. Many root and tuber crops are grown as traditional foods or are adapted to unique ecosystems and are of little importance to world food production. Others such as cassava (Manihot esculenta Crantz) and white-fleshed sweet potato (Ipomoea batatas L.) are known worldwide. Several of these crops have been termed under-exploited and deserving of considerably more research input

Potato and Banana chips: Potato chips are one of the popular snack foods consumed throughout the country. Chips are mostly prepared by small scale artisans / confectioners, and sold in plastic film or paper packs. Recently, however some of the companies have installed plants having relatively large capacities and have started marketing chips in attractive packs. The fat content generally ranges between 25-40% and moisture content between 2-4%. Potatoes having high total solids, low reducing sugars and low amylase activity are most suitable for chips manufacture.

Banana chips are prepared from varieties rich in starch having very low levels of soluble sugars and polyphenol - oxidase activity. These are mostly processed and marketed in Southern States especially in Kerala. Previously, the chips were fried in coconut oil, but now other vegetable oils are also used in their processing. Relatively, banana chips are harder in texture than potato chips.

6.1. Potato (Solanum tuberosum L.)

Potato, Solanum tuberosum, is a starchy, tuberous crop belonging to the Solanaceae family. The name potato originally referred to a type of sweet potato, batata, in Spanish. Potatoes are occasionally referred to as “Irish potatoes” or “white potatoes” in the United States, to distinguish them from sweet potatoes. The potato was believed to be first domesticated in the region of southern Peru and extreme northwestern Bolivia between 8000 to 5000 BC. The potato diffused widely after 1600, becoming a major food resource in Europe and East Asia. Greater geographic mobility of farmers led to the rapid spread of potato cultivation throughout China, and India. China is now the world’s largest potato producer and nearly one third of the world’s potatoes are produced in China and India.

Today potato is the fourth major food crop after rice, wheat and maize in the world. In India potato is a very important crop and are mainly produced in the states of Uttar

Cultivars/Varieties: Most of the improved potato varieties were developed by CPRI, Kufri, Shimla. Most of the earlier varieties released as clonal selections derived from foreign varieties have been replaced with high yielding new varieties from the same institute. The popular varieties under cultivation now are Kufri Sindhuri, Kufri Chandramukhi, Kufri Jyothi, Kufri Lauvkar, Kufri Muthu, Kufri Dewa, Kufri Badshah, Kufri Bahar, Kufri Lalima, Kufri Swarna, Kufri Jawahar, Kufri Ashoka, Kufri Megha, Kufri Sutlej, Kufri Pukhraj, Kufri Chipsona-1, Kufri Chipsona-2 and Kufri Giriraj.

Uses

Potatoes are used in different ways like boiled, fried, baked and roasted. Potatoes are used to brew alcoholic beverages such as vodka, potcheen, or akvavit.They are also used as food for domestic animals. Potato starch is used in the food industry as, for example, thickeners and binders of soups and sauces, in the textile industry, as adhesives, and for the manufacturing of papers and boards. Many companies are exploring the possibilities of using waste potatoes to obtain polylactic acid for use in bioplastic products; other research projects seek ways to use the starch as a base for biodegradable packaging. Potato skins, along with honey, are used in folk medicine for burns in India. Burn centers in India have experimented with the use of the thin outer skin layer to protect burns while healing. The potato is best known for its carbohydrate content, which is in the form of starch. Because of its high starch content, it is a staple food in several parts of world including in some parts of India. A small but significant portion of this starch is resistant to digestion by enzymes in the stomach and small intestine, and so reaches the large intestine essentially intact, thereby, increasing its physiological significance. Besides these the potato also provides various other nutritional constituents to the body. Potato is also processed into various products like chips, powder, pappad, savory items.

The machine parts, which have relative motion, rub against each other. The rubbing surfaces are never perfectly smooth, even when they are highly polished. If they are observed under a microscope, one sees small depressions and elevations which get interlocked when the machine parts are under pressure, and give rise to a resisting force called frictional force. Due to friction, the parts get worn out and become useless. Friction produces heat, which, in this case, represents loss of work. To reduce this wear and loss of power caused by friction, certain foreign substances are introduced between the rubbing surfaces which keep them apart. These substances are called lubricants; and lubrication is the science of reducing friction by the application of a suitable substance between the rubbing surfaces of bodies having relative motion.

Types of Bakery Products

Baked goods are produced from either doughs or batters which are a mixture of flour and water made by mixing, beating, kneading or folding. The processing method depends on the ingredients being used and the product being made. Bread is either leavened or unleavened. Leavened bread is made from a mixture of flour, yeast, salt and water. Unleavened bread does not contain yeast and therefore does not rise. It is flat bread that is quicker to make than yeast-bread.