eChapters

1. Introduction

 Banana is the developing world’s fourth most important food crop (after rice, wheat and maize) accounting for 70 million metric tons per annum (FAO stat, 2007 faostat.fao.org/site/567/Desktop Default.aspx?). Banana is also the second highest fruit crop in the world, representing a wide range of varieties of cooking and dessert types, providing a staple, nutritious inexpensive food for millions of people. The word “banana” is a general term embracing a number of species or hybrids in the genus Musa of the family Musaceae known simply as the banana family. Two Musa species namely Musa acuminata and Musa balbisiana, out of the 28 described were first noted in 1865 by Kurz as being the origin of most of the commercial clones (Stover and Simmonds 1987). Cultivated clones are parthenocarpic, mostly sterile with starchy fruits. Indeed, wild types are very fertile; their fruits are full of seeds with little starch, and are seldom fit for human consumption. Its abundance, varietal diversity, availability round-the-year and low cost make banana an important commodity for the religious occasions in many tropical countries. The vegetable bananas, generally grouped under ‘Plantains’ are larger, more angular than dessert type and are generally intended for cooking unripe, although ripened ones are quite like dissert bananas.

Introduction

Foods prepared by fermenting raw ingredients of plant or animal sources naturally or mixing it with the starter culture (s) containing functional micro flora is called fermented foods. The functional micro flora used in starter culture is responsible for biochemical and organoleptic alteration of the substrates into edible yields which are socially and culturally appropriate to consumers (Tamang et al., 2010a, Tamang et al., 2010b). Fermented food has its own characteristic microflora and this group of micro flora increases the nutritional value by increasing the levels of essential amino acids, vitamins, proteins, etc.

Fermented foods play a major role in meeting nutritional requirement and socio economic development of developing countries. They are important components of the diet as staples, adjuncts to staples, condiments and beverages. A wide variety of fermenting substrates are available such as cereals, pulses, soya beans, flowers, milk, fish, meat, etc. A wide majority of plants and their parts are often utilized in the preparation of starter culture (Deori et al., 2007, Deka and Sarma, 2010).

Heat desiccated products represent khoa and khoa-based sweets, rabri, basundi, etc. These are important traditional dairy products. Traditional dairy products and a great assortment of sweets is an integral part of Indian heritage. These products are endowed with enormous value and enjoy tremendous mass appeal. Of great social, religious, cultural and economic importance these products have been developed over a long period of culinary skills and carry with them, the age-old wisdom and experience. Traditional dairy products have always played a pivotal role in preservation of precious milk nutrients and promotion of its consumption among masses. The increased availability of milk during the flush season coupled with lack of facilities to keep liquid milk fresh during transit from rural production areas to urban market has led to the conversion of milk into variety of traditional products. In addition to preservation of milk solids for longer duration, manufacture of traditional dairy products adds value to milk and also provides tremendous employment opportunity. It is estimated that about 50% of milk produced in India is converted into a variety of traditional products.

Traditional dairy products represent the most prolific segment of Indian dairy industry. These products not only have an established market in India but also have a great export potential because of strong presence of Indian diaspora in many parts of the world. In view of the growing awareness towards the safety aspects of milk-based sweets in India, the consumer shall prefer to buy these products from the organized sector. Despite the widespread popularity and acceptability of traditional milk products in the Indian market, the organized sector has so far not been able to tap into this market potential for many reasons such as lack of published literature on their technology, inadequacy of appropriate technologies for their commercial exploitation, inadequacy of appropriate packaging materials and labeling to take care of new pattern in consumer demand, low keeping quality and a lack of quality assurance systems.

6.1 Introduction

Consumer demand, regulatory guidelines and economic power of the consumer as well as ascertained profitability stimulated the need of novel food processing techniques. The concept of “fresh”, “natural”, or “organic” food also led to the development of environmentally sound and resource efficient food processing technologies. Thermal processes have been used for food preservation since a long time. These are not very energy efficient and can change the phase of food from fresh to cooked as well as it can alter the nutritional and sensory qualities. Thus, the quest for energy conservation by the manufacturers to reduce carbon footprint of the processes involved in food processing and preservation as well as to fulfill consumers’ requirement for fresh-like quality food have given rise to the development of innovative non-thermal food processing technologies i.e. ionizing radiation, high-intensity light pulses, high isobaric pressure, electric or oscillating magnetic fields, as well as pulsed electric fields (PEF).

Application of electric energy in food processing started in the early 1900s. In the beginning, electrical pasteurization inactivated microorganisms by increasing the temperature of samples by means of an electrical resistance (ohmic heating). Milk was the first electrically pasteurized product. In the late 1940s, electric fields were used to increase the permeability of fruits to facilitate the subsequent extraction of juices. The PEF technology as a non-thermal process is very effective for inactivation of microorganisms, increasing the pressing efficiency, enhancing the juice extraction, and for intensification of the food dehydration and drying process. The main effect of PEF technology is based on the phenomena that biological membranes are punctured under the influence of external electrical impulses. This process is often referred as non-thermal, since the structural damage to membranes is implemented at very low temperature compared to the conventional heating process. The PEF process is considered to be energy efficient because the electric energy is released in short pulses, thus total energy requirement is much lower than other continuous preservation technologies. The microbial inactivation can be achieved at ambient or moderately elevated temperatures by the application of short-bursts of high intensity electric fields to liquid foods flowing between two electrodes or to semi-solid/ solid food between some specialized electrode and treatment systems. Due to chemical/physical properties and presence of electrical charge, the liquid foods (e.g. milk or fruit juices) had different conductivity, which results in variable flux of electrical current through the food systems.

Butter is one of the leading milk product in developed countries of the world. It serves as a balance wheel of dairy industry. Surplus milk is generally converted into butter to be used during the times of scarcity. It is an article of commerce and a sign if wealth. Butter is a fat concentrate, which is obtained by churning cream, gathering the fat into a compact mass and then working it for proper distribution of moisture and salt. The art of butter making has a long history. The manufacture of butter was confined to colder regions where gravity creaming was successful. The milk was allowed to stand undisturbed for 10-12 hours until layer of cream collects at the top.

Introduction

As the world population continues to grow, the global market for food products is expanding, together with an increased emphasis on food safety. Consumers have become more discerning in the type of foods they buy and how these foods affect their health and well being. Food safety is generally defined as the assurance that the food will not cause any harm to the consumer when it is prepared and/or eaten according to its intended use ( To achieve food safety, a management system has been developed which aims on preventing problems before they occur, rather than trying to detect failures through end product testing. It also places more responsibility for ensuring food safety on food manufacturers, who have to develop control and traceability of their products from ‘farm to plate’. The system requires the identification of specific hazards throughout the entire process of food production, concentrates on the points in the process that are critical to the safety of the product, and highlights measures for their control (Henson and Caswell, 1999).

INTRODUCTION

Preservation of food by drying or chemical means as by alcohol or acid fermentation and that by the use of ice is long recorded in history. With the advancement of science and the knowledge governing various unit operations in food processing, these food preservation techniques employing thermal, radiation, or low temperature or a combination of these have only got further refined as regards their viability and commercial applications. Process foods of different genre and cuisine, which include frozen foods too, are increasingly becoming popular the world over for reasons of quality, safety and year round supply of nutritious foods to cater to different niche segments of human society. Increasing health consciousness is buoying those processed foods which are preserved and stabilized using non-thermal technologies as these ensure retention of food nutrients to a better definition. Interest in frozen food also stems from need to deliver safe and nutritious foods with extended shelf-lives.

1. INTRODUCTION

India is a vast country having a geographical area of 328 million hectares with 15 distinct agro-climatic zones. Fruits and vegetables are one of the most important and fast growing sub-sectors as they form an indispensable part of healthy diet. It holds a unique position for growing a wide range of vegetables in its diverse agro-climatic conditions. World production of vegetables amounts to 486 million tons, while that of fruits is 392 million tons. India produces 159.5m MT tons of vegetables from an area of 9.07 million hectare annually (NHB, 2013). Productivity of vegetables in India presently is 16.7 tons per hectare. India produces 36 % green peas and 10% onion of world’s production. Onion, potatoes and green vegetables like okra, bitter gourd and green chillies also have good export potential. Being rich in vitamins, minerals, dietary fibre and natural antioxidants most vegetables are classified as the protective foods. However, owing to the presence of high moisture content and mostly being non acidic, the vegetables are highly perishable and needs to be handled properly and immediately after harvest. Processing of vegetables into different value added products is one of the most effective alternatives to reduce post harvest losses.

Vegetables are highly beneficial for the maintenance of health and disease prevention. An intake of about 280 grams of vegetables per day per person has been considered essential. Vegetable unlike cereals deteriorated quickly when stored for long periods because of the relatively high moisture contents. Huge amounts of losses take place between harvesting and consumption. Various causes are attributed to the deterioration process and it becomes essential to adopt integrated, low cost system of post harvest technology right from the pre-harvest stage.

Filling converts freshly frozen ice cream into commercially marketable product formats while maintaining accurate portioning, appearance, hygiene, and structural quality. This chapter examines the major filling and forming systems used in industrial ice cream production. It covers cup, cone, moulded stick, extruded novelty, tub, and family-pack filling lines. The chapter explains equipment functions, filling principles, product handling, and operational considerations for different formats. Common filling defects and corrective measures are also discussed. Standard operating procedures for start-up, operation, and shutdown provide practical guidance for plant personnel. Effective filling operations are essential for achieving consistent weight, attractive presentation, packaging integrity, productivity, and efficient manufacturing performance.

Meat and meat products industry is a sunrise industry in India having huge potential for upliftment of agricultural economy. India is the second largest food producer in world but the contribution of meat industry is still confined to localized handlers. So to uplift industry basic infrastructure, food chains, food security and safety along with standards and laws formulation and their implementations is today’s need. Standards are carefully drawn specifications with respect to a food product. These standards are mainly of three types i.e. government, trade and research standards. Government standards are formulated by the government of India or state government and also have the power to implement these standards while trade standards are implied by the individual company. Research standards are formulated on the basis of comparative study of the products by the researchers. Laws are the legislations enforced by the organisations either government or by autonomous bodies made under the constitutional acts of the country. At present numerous standards and laws are in existence in individual country or at international level. The need is to harmonize them as per the industry and trade requirement.

Domestic Organizations Involved in Standards and Laws Formulation

For the formulation, enforcement and control of standards and legislations at domestic level various organizations are of prime value. Some of these are:

1. INTRODUCTION

Flavour is a distinctive property of a substance affecting the gustatory sense. It may be defined as “The sum of those characteristics of any material taken in the mouth, perceived principally by the senses of taste and smell, and interpreted by the brain.” Flavour perception is a complex process which requires the particles to be mixed with saliva and salivary enzymes to promote the release of flavour. Flavour molecules are very diverse in nature. More than 5000 compounds in food have been identified as flavour components which can be detected at very low concentration and are thus, used in products at very low levels. Hexenols and hexenals, characteristic of green taste of fresh fruits and vegetables, can be perceived at a concentration of about 1 part per million (ppm). Naturally occuring flavour compounds are present at a very low concentration ranging from parts per trillions (ppt) to parts per millions (ppm) level. Majority of these compounds are volatile, with boiling points in the range of 20-300 °C. Most of these compounds are lipophilic and possess a great diversity of chemical group and structure with molecular weight ranging between 50-250 g/mol.

Flavour and fragrance compounds are a part of expanding industry with an estimated cost of nearly $27 billion. These comprise of diverse molecules with unique structures and functional groups that contribute to varied aroma and flavour, ranging from floral to fruity notes. The processing operations modify the equilibrium between the different components in raw food that might weaken the original flavour, which require subsequent supplementation. These flavour supplements can be natural or chemically synthesized. Of all the available flavour compounds, around 80% are produced by chemical synthesis whose use is limited due to formation of racemic mixtures and lack of substrate specificity. The growing awareness of consumers towards chemicals supplemented to food has led to the development of the flavouring compounds of biological origin referred to as natural flavours or bioflavours. The first major source of flavour compounds was primarily from plants. Identification of microbes producing vital food flavourants paved the way for alternative low cost, efficient and flexible method for the commercial production of flavour compounds.

C - enamel can: The sulphur resistant lacquer is golden coloured and the can coated with it are called C-enamel can or sulphure resistant can, used for packing non acid products (Plate 143).

CA storage: Storage of commodities under gaseous atmosphere like gas storage, where the composition of atmosphere is controlled accurately. MA and CA differ only in degree of control and CA is more exact. These storage methods in combination with refrigeration markedly enhance storage life of fruit and vegetables (Plate 144).

CAC: It stands for Codex Alimentarious commission (1962). It is a joint commission of FAO and WHO, comprising of 146 member countries. It ensures consumer food safety, establish fair practices in food trade and promote the development of international food standards. CAC make standards for food additives, veterinary drugs, pesticide residue and other miscellaneous substances that affect consumer safety. These are published in Codex Alimentarius.

1.1 Introduction and Background

In present scenario, the word “extrusion” refers to a process by which dry or semi-moist ingredients with varying in-barrel moisture are forced through varying barrel temperature, screw speed and screw configuration through a die opening of the desired cross section. In other words, extrusion is predominantly a thermo-mechanical processing operation that combines several unit operations, including mixing, coating, kneading, venting, shearing, heating, forming, partial drying or puffing, depending on the material and equipment used.

The origins of extrusion are in the metallurgical industry, where in 1797 Joseph Bramah patented the first extrusion process, wherein a piston driven device was used for making seamless lead pipes. The present understanding of extrusion technology and the developments or improvements in machine design are largely due to research carried out by the plastics industry. In food industry, this technology is in use since 1930 and its popularity is increasing continuously due to its efficiency, continuity and sustainability. In beginning, sausage extruders were developed in the nineteenth century as simple forming machines. One of the original developments which laid the foundation of the food extrusion was the use of pasta press termed as “cold extruder” in mid 1930s. Furthermore, in the late 1930s, General Mills, Incorporation., Minneapolis, MN, USA, first used a single screw extruder in the manufacture of ready-to-eat (RTE) cereals. Later in 1970s, twin screw extruders were used for the manufacture of moist pet-foods. Twin screw extruders were also adapted from polymer industry, as rising food quality and limitations of single screw extruders were demanding a more versatile process for the newer and higher quality products. After 1970s, the extrusion processing with simultaneous use of heat was popularized as a versatile and highly energy efficient with negligible wastage process. In all these years, number of changes has been noted in the extruder design such as changes in screw design, barrel design and also material used for the manufacture of these materials. Barrel liners availability along with already available segmented screws could further add more economics to the process and increased equipment lifetime. For better wearing characteristics, a number of screw elements of different materials are being used in addition to standard nitrided steel for customized processing needs, such as corrosion and wear resistant surface coated steels, stainless steel, satellite welded and bimetallic HIP (Hot Isostatic Press). JBL Feedscrews Limited, a UK based company recently introduced tungsten carbide coated screw in conjunction with a compatible bimetallic barrel. Likewise, a number of options for barrel metallurgy are available to withstand the higher internal pressure and temperature. Barrels lined with hard cobalt based alloy, typically Xaloy, to give abrasion and chemical resistance are also in use, although, the most common material is carbon steel with a nitride interior. Similarly, steam heated or jacketed barrels were used earlier for cooking purpose which gradually replaced by the electric induction heating elements. These HTST cooking extruders are versatile, highly productive and energy efficient processing machines. They can use a wide variety of raw materials and formulations to produce products with increased shelf-life and convenience.

2.1. The Story of Fermentation

Human progress depends on man’s tact to tame the forces of nature. It calls for knowledge. Prior to Age of Science, our fund of such knowledge was gained by a process of trial, error and accidental discovery. Progress was due not so much to man’s understanding as it was to his unquenchable spirit, miraculous ingenuity and indomitable persistence.

At last, in the utmost urgency of struggle for a longer, healthier and more satisfying existence, humanity taught itself the scientific method, which has changed the world, and will change it more in the coming years. This chapter deals with one of the most momentous and far reaching of all scientific achievements: the ability to harness microscopic living creatures in the service of mankind. Thanks to the wonders of fermentation technology and biochemical engineering developed by scientists and skilled technicians in industrial, governmental and university laboratories around the world, billions of microbes are now at work in industry, producing substances that give us better food $#x0026; drink, better clothing $#x0026; shelter and better medicines. Thus, the human race has entered a new era of health, comfort and longevity.

In the Beginning Art without Science: The cave man discovered that meat allowed to stand a few days was more pleasing to the taste than meat eaten soon after the kill. The cave man’s earliest descendants learned that intoxicating drinks could be made from grains and fruits.

15.1 Introduction

Color of food is the most sensitive part of any commodity as it is the one of the organoleptic characteristic to be noticed and one of the main ways of visually assessing a food before it is consumed. The people associate certain colors with certain flavors and the color of food can influence the perceived flavor in anything from confectionary to beverages. For this reason, food manufacturers add dyes to their products. Sometimes the aim is to simulate a color that is perceived by the consumer as natural, such as adding red coloring to glace cherries, but sometimes it is for effect, like the green ketchup that was launched by Heinz in 2000. If the flavor of a food product is inconsistent with the color, the flavor can often be perceived incorrectly, for example an orange flavored drink colored green could be perceived to taste of lime. In addition, the color of a food substance is important indicator of its freshness. While all of us are aware that food with bright or unnatural colors likely contains food coloring but only few people know that natural foods such as oranges and salmon are sometimes also dyed to mask natural variations in color. The color variation in foods throughout the seasons and the effects of processing and storage often make color addition commercially advantageous to maintain the color expected or preferred by the consumer. Some of the primary reasons include:

A. Novel Dehydration Technologies

Dehydration, the process of removing moisture from food products, is crucial for enhancing shelf life, reducing weight and volume for transportation, and preserving nutritional value. Traditional dehydration methods, such as sun drying, air drying, and freeze drying, have been widely used for centuries. However, advancements in food technology have led to the development of novel dehydration technologies that offer improved efficiency, quality retention, and sustainability.1. Vacuum Microwave Dehydration

Vacuum microwave dehydration is a cutting-edge dehydration technique that combines the advantages of removing moisture from food products while preserving their color, flavor, texture, and nutritional content (fig 1).

Freezing is one of the most critical stages in ice cream manufacture because it creates the frozen structure while simultaneously incorporating air. This chapter explains the principles of dynamic freezing and the structural changes that occur as the mix is transformed into semi-frozen ice cream. It discusses ice-crystal formation, air incorporation, overrun, draw temperature, fat destabilization, and product condition at freezer draw. Different freezer systems and hardening requirements are examined, along with calculations related to output and overrun. The chapter also introduces ingredient feeders and ripple or ribbon systems. Understanding freezing technology is essential for controlling texture, body, meltdown, yield, and overall product quality.

Formulation of meat and sea food products requires various ingredients which are commonly known as food additives. Food additives are those non-meat ingredients which are used to enhance colour, flavour, aroma and texture of the meat and sea food products. These food products can fulfil the demand of modern consumers. As per the definition of Food and Drug Administration (FDA) food additives are those substance which are used to provide a technical effect in foods. The use of food additives has become more prominent in recent years, due to the increased production of prepared, processed, and convenience foods. Additives are used for flavour and appeal, food preparation and processing, freshness, and safety. These additives can be classified as curing ingredients, extenders and binders, flavour enhancers and other additives. For the formulation of different products both raw materials and ingredients should be of food grade and sound hygienic strength. In the starting of this chapter we will discuss about ingredients used then the specific formulations will be discussed for better understanding of meat and sea food processing.

Curing Ingredients

Curing agents such as salt, phosphate, sugars, nitrite and nitrate, sodium ascorbate and erythorbate etc. have traditionally been used in various meat formulations from long back. The details of these ingredients have already been discussed in chapter-8 of this book. So we will try to discuss other ingredients which are relevant for meat and sea food products other than these ingredients. Cure accelerators such as ascorbates and erythorbates are used to speed the curing process. They also stabilize the colour of the final product. The examples are ascorbic acid, erythorbic acid, sodium erythorbate, citric acid, sodium citrate, sodium acid pyrophosphate, glucono delta lactone (GDL) etc. Glucono-delta-lactone (GDL) acts as a curing accelerator in meat and meat products. It is permissible up to 1% in sausages and up to this level it lowers the pH about 0.5 thus inhibits the growth of spoilage micro-organisms. GDL also facilitate the cured colour development.