eChapters

SYNOPSIS

The availability of food is of paramount importance without which it is hard for human beings to survive. The recognized way of making food available is to produce but it is also equally important that food produced is utilized well without loss of edible food materials. The paper discusses on unused food, under- utilized food within and across countries, and puts emphasis on utilization and handling of food. In perspective, the paper highlights the steps to be taken up to save and utilize the food already produced.

SYNOPSIS

This millennium has brought about serious challenges as well as excellent opportunities for the betterment of humanity. The migration of rural population to urban areas is one of the major challenges foreseen. It is expected that much of the population growth is expected to take place in the cities of the developing world. By 2020, about 52 percent of the developing world’s population will be living in urban areas (IFPRI, 1999). The agricultural areas around cities offer great promise to urban and peri-urban agriculture.

The interventions on Urban and Peri-urban Agriculture (UPA) suggested and initiative undertaken by FAO is timely and valuable in the interest of the teeming population demanding for both nutrition and health. The International Conference on Vegetables (ICV-2002) held during 2002 has emphasized the importance of vegetables; FAO International Workshop on Urban and Peri-urban Agriculture for Asian Countries organized during 2005 had amply emphasized the important role of horticulture; and the International Conference on Horticulture (ICH-2009) held during 2009, has amply illustrated the importance of horticultural crops particularly vegetables in UPA for the benefit of urban population.

The urbanization process is a reality that drives people to go and live in the cities. It is very pronounced in Latin America where already 85% of the population lives in cities; in Asia the average is reaching 60% whereas in Africa the phenomenon has started later and has now reached 35%. Besides the increased demand for food, there has been a rapid increase of poverty, unemployment, hunger and malnutrition in the Urban and Peri-urban environment around the world that are of great concern to central and municipal authorities.

UPA can contribute to feeding the urban population, generate income and employment and thereby reduce poverty. In reality many countries have already UPA related activities going on in areas of horticulture including vegetables, dairy production, small livestock, aquaculture and forestry. However, it has been realized that very few countries had actually investigated the real opportunities and constraints linked to the urban agriculture sector.

Keywords : Urban Agriculture, Urban Food, Peri-urban Agriculture, UPA.

The uronic acid pathway is a minor and alternative pathway for glucose oxidation and for the production of uronic acid sugar. Uronic acids of sugars are formed when the terminal carbon’s (C6) hydroxyl group (CH2OH) of sugar gets oxidized to a carboxylic acid. Uronic acid names depend on the name of the parent sugars. Uronic acid of glucose is glucuronic acid, hexose uronic acids are hexuronic acids, and pentose uronic acids are named penturonic acids. The uronic acid pathway is located in the cytosol of the liver and adipose tissue.
The glucuronic acid should not be confused with gluconic acid (aldonic acid) and glucaric acid (aldaric acid or dicarboxylic acid). Gluconic acid (aldonic acid or “onic” acid) is obtained from D-glucose by oxidizing its aldehyde group at C1 to a carboxyl group. Glucaric acid (aldaric or dicarboxylic acid) is formed upon oxidation of both the terminal hydroxyl groups (C1 and C6) and the aldehyde. They have two carboxylic acid groups. This pathway yields pentoses & ascorbic acid or vitamin C (not in primates & guinea pigs) from glucose.

Abstract

The constant improvement in automation of bakery industry has placed higher demands on wheat. As a consequence bakery industry requires wheat possessing specific quality attributes. In view of this, there is need to produce good quality wheat not only for good chapattis but also for better bakery products viz., bread, biscuit, noodles, pasta products. New technologies are emerging which could be exploited for determining the Indian wheats for their suitability for various value added products. In the current investigation, 50 genotypes possessing low protein content (<10.5%) selected from a vast amount of breeding material were analysed for their biscuit making attributes. These lines were screened by actual baking test and alkaline water retention capacity (AWRC) test keeping the standard prescribed for biscuit making qualities viz., low protein content, low sedimentation value, low AWRC and larger diameter with larger spread factor of biscuit. Further with the help of Stable Micro Systems TA.HDi Texture Analyser the biscuits were analysed for hardness and crispness. Correlation coefficient among 8 quality traits suggested highly significant and positive correlation between sedimentation value and AWRC, biscuit diameter and spread factor, and biscuit hardness and fracturability, and significant negative correlation between biscuit diameter and its thickness. On the basis of findings, genotypes identified for biscuit making qualities may be used as donor for developing varieties suitable for biscuit making.

Different basic as well as advanced laboratory equipment need to be used in a laboratory while conducting experiments. Many of them like pH meter, laminar air-flow hood, viscometer, thermometer, magnetic stirrer, microwave ovens, incubators, sand-bath, water-bath, oil-bath, etc. are the basic and simple equipment which require to be used routinely while conducting experiments in a laboratory. However, basic knowledge of their operation, handling procedure, when to be used, how to be used, and more importantly what not to be done with it, etc. are essential for keeping them in serviceable condition as well as for the accuracy/precision in their operation. In this chapter, we will discuss about some of the routinely used laboratory equipment along, while some other sophisticated equipment will be discussed in other chapters.

pH Meter

A pH meter measures exactly the H+ concentration of a solution; thus indicates acidity or alkalinity of a solution with greater precision. Actually, it measures the difference in electrical potential between a pH electrode and a reference electrode, and display the results converted into the corresponding pH value. Electrode is the key part (rod-like structure, usually made of glass) of a pH meter, having a bulb at the bottom containing a sensor. The pH meters range from simple and inexpensive pen-like devices (portable/pocket pH meter) to complex and expensive laboratory instruments with computer interface (Figure 5.1).

Frequent calibration of a pH meter using the solutions of known pH (standard solution of pH 4.01, 7.00, 10.01, Figure 5.2), generally before each use, ensures the accuracy of the instrument. For very precise work the pH meter should be calibrated before each measurement. For normal use calibration should be performed at the beginning of each day. This is necessary because the glass electrode does not give a reproducible measurement over a longer period of time.

Introduction

To accomplish experimentations in laboratories, sometimes we need microscope to test/validate our ideas/findings. A microscope is needed to examine objects which are very small which cannot be visualised by naked eyes. However, microscopic study requires some expertise in operating the microscope, particularly the sophisticated microscopes, as well as to prepare (peeling, sections, cutting, fixation, staining, dehydration, mounting, etc.) the sample, so that it can be appropriately examined for the anticipated details.

According to the scientific requirements different types of microscopes are used in the laboratories for research purpose. In this chapter, our aim is to acquaint you with the basics of using and handling of microscopes, particularly a compound microscope that is commonly used by the graduate and post graduate students for basic research.

Microscopy is often designated as the scientific investigation that is employed to review and analyse minute structures and objects using a microscope. The term “microscope” has been derived from ancient Greek words “micros” meaning “small” and “skopeîn” meaning “to look at or see,”.

Microscope

A microscope is a laboratory instrument used to examine objects (biological specimens) which are too small to be seen by the naked eye. The microscope must accomplish three tasks:

• Magnification- to provide a magnified image of the specimen.

• Resolution- to separate the details in the image.

• Contrast- to render the details clearly visible to the eyes.

Although we will tnroduce to you the different types of microscopes used for different speciments, our main focus is to discuss about compound microscope, which is commonly used in the laboratories. Compound microscope was developed around the beginning of 17th century.

A variety of glassware like burettes, pipettes, measuring cylinders, flasks, separating funnel etc. are used for experimental purposes in a laboratory. All of these need to be used and handled correctly, otherwise the chances of experimental error and damage to the glassware increase significantly. Being made of glass, they need special care while washing and using in experiments because even a minor mistake in handling of glassware may result in breakage of the apparatus. With this precautionary note, let us discuss about some of the specific glassware used in the laboratories.

Burette

Burette is a long graduated glass tube with a stopcock at one end for delivering a known/desired volume of a liquid, especially in titration experiments. It contains a stopcock at the lower end and a tapered capillary tube as the stopcock’s outlet. The flow rate of liquid from the tub stopcock’s outlet can be controlled with the help of stopcock valve. Burette is used for measuring the volume of a solution/chemical added in a quantitative (titrimetric) estimation experiment.

Procedure of using a Burette

The burette reading must be noted before and after delivering the chemical/ solution from the burette. The difference in these two readings is the volume of the chemical/solution released out of the burette. The solution should be released slowly/drop-by-drop to avoid any experimental error/mistake. If the solution/chemical is allowed to pour out too fast, the wall of the burette will not drain properly and some liquid may remain sticking to the surface of the walls. Moreover, excessive amount of chemical may be released/dropped during the experiment, particularly during the titration experiment wherein we need to know the exact amount of acid/base needed to get neutralization point. Thus, any minor mistake may lead to get a faulty reading. The measuring capacity of a burette usually used in a laboratory is 50 mL.

Since mouth pipetting of liquid reagents in a laboratory is not advisable, different tools are needed for safe, easier, and precise dispensing of liquid reagents. This chapter is devoted to make you aware of the tools like vacupette and micropipette which can be used for the handling of liquid reagents in a safe and precise way.

Vacupette

Glass pipettes have been traditionally used by sucking liquid solvent/solution directly using mouth. For safety reasons, mouth pipetting is no longer permitted in a laboratory. Hence, to fill a pipette vacupette is used by placing it on the top of glass or plastic pipette. It acts as a device to create vacuum for filling reagent in the pipette as well as for releasing the reagent with mechanical regulation on the flow out of the liquid. Vacupette can be of different types.

1. Rubber Bulb Vacupette

Rubber bulb vacupette is often used to transfer (pump up and discharge) liquid using a pipette when a larger quantity of chemicals is to be transferred. Small/tiny rubber bulb is attached to glass/plastic pipette for drawing little amount of reagents. Small vacupette is used to precisely discharge smaller volume/ drops.

Handling of Vacupette

• Insert the top of a pipette in the bottom of the rubber bulb vacupette (Figure 6.1).

• Remove air from the pipette by squeezing valve “A” at the top of the vacupette while simultaneously squeezing the rubber bulb. The amount of air released depends on the size of the rubber bulb.

Introduction

Food ingredients sector is indicating ample prospects for growth. The segment is an obligatory element for the growth of the food and beverage sector. These ingredients are also driving the development of the healthy functional foods industry to increase by 20% growth annually. Innovation in the food and beverage market, especially in the processed food domain, has created innumerable opportunities for new product development in the ingredients market as well. The segment is driven by the growing food processing industry and India is emerging as ingredients bowl of the future. Additionally, growing urbanization coupled with industrialization and changing lifestyles have led to growing demand for convenient food that offers health benefits, over and above the basic nutritional benefits of the foodstuff. There are nearly 10 to 15 broad classes of ingredients that include the very basic ingredients as well as certain value added ingredients that have niche applications. Key ingredients are preservatives, flavours, colours, hydrocolloids/stabilizers, emulsifiers, artificial sweeteners and value added health food ingredients such as omega-3-fatty acids prebiotics, probiotics etc. Until recently, there has been limited research into functional foods in meats, while functional foods in the dairy sector have been developed to a high degree. But meat is less allergenic than many other foods and much more research into the development and marketing of novel functional meat products is required. Such meat products would open up a new market for the meat industry. Nutraceutical and functional food industry is a very vibrant industry today with the claims and a clear mandate of health, wellness and prevention of diseases as one of its main goals.

The history of plant growth regulation was knownfor many years before the time of Christ, when it was common practice in the Middle East to place a drop of olive oil on figs to promote development. The use of plant growth regulators (PGRs) to modify growth and flowering of pineapple began in 1930s. In eighteenth century when a carpenter was working in a greenhouse in the Azores Islandaccidently set fire to a pile of shavings. To the surprise of the grower who had thought his plants were ruined, they burst into flower instead of being damaged (Collins, 1960). In Hawaii, Rodriguez (1932) noticed in the pineapple fields that smoke from brush fires adjacent to the field caused premature flowering. The ingredients of smoke were subsequently found to be ethylene and acetylene, the unsaturated hydrocarbons. During the 1940’s, auxins were also shown to produce this effect,α-Naphthalene acetic acid (NAA), β-Naphthalene acetic acid (BNA), Fruitone and naphthaleneacetamide were the next forcing agent to become commercially used in pineapple. Since that time many works have been carried out with improving results like natural and synthetic compounds that alter function, shape and size of crop plants have been discovered. Today, specific PGRs are used to modify crop growth rate and growth pattern during the various stages of development from germination through harvest and post-harvest preservation. The use of regulating chemicals has become an important component of agro-technical procedures for most of the cultivated plants and especially for fruit plants.

Introduction

It became clear from the discussions of previous chapters that probiotics perform metabolic functions such as fermenting indigestible dietary residues and endogenous mucus, production of vitamins, and absorption of minerals. They also play key role in intestinal epithelial cell proliferation and differentiation, and the homeostasis of the immune system. Further, probiotics are also known to involve in modifying gut pH, antagonizing pathogens through the production of antimicrobial compounds, competing with pathogens for recept or sites as well as for available nutrients and growth factors, stimulating immunomodulatory cells of the host, and produce a wide range of enzymes such as lactase, amylase, lipase, protease, phytase and so on. The molecular mechanisms of probiotics are largely unknown and opens avenue for research in probiotics. Moreover, current research in probiotics and health consciousness in the public lead to an increased interest towards probiotics from the public, researchers, governmental organizations (such as the WHO/FAO) and medicine and food companies. In this chapter, application of probiotics in treating various diseases and disorders are discussed.

Introduction

COVID-19, a worldwide pandemic, addresses a deflationary stun for the worldwide economy. The outbreak of coronavirus has had a significant impact on public health worldwide and all stages of various industries’ supply chain and value chain. The 2019 novel coronavirus (2019-nCoV) or the severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) is rapidly spreading from its origin in Wuhan City of Hubei Province of China to the rest of the world. The infection began in bats and was communicated to people by inhalation or contact with infected droplets, and its infection time frame goes from 2 to 14 days. Primary manifestations in hospitalized patients with COVID-19 include fever (98%), cough/hack (76%), and myalgia or weakness (44%). Severe complications include acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS), RNAemia, acute cardiac injury, and multiple organ failure. However, exaggerated immune responses may lead to Cytokine Storm. Cytokine storm syndrome includes ARDS, shock, and multi-organ failure (Zheng et al., 2020). Many people are asymptomatic also, and the severity of this disease varies from person to person. The fatality rate is estimated to range from 2 to 3%. Typical/low white cell checks can analyze it with raised C-responsive protein (CRP), periodic modernized tomographic chest examination. The infection spreads quicker than its two predecessors, the SARS-CoV and Middle East respiratory disorder Covid (MERS-CoV); however, it has lower casualty. The worldwide effect of this new scourge is yet questionable (Singhal, T. (2020).

Abstract

The present study was conducted to develop ready to eat extruded snack food based on germinated flour of wheat, Bengal gram and green gram. A Central Composite Rotatable Design (CCRD) for five variables at five levels was used for experimental combinations and optimization of the process parameters. Experimental design with green gram flour (5 to 20%) and bengal gram flour (1535%) in wheat flour, moisture content (14-18%), screw speed (200-300 rpm) and barrel temperature (126-134°C) as independent variables having 32 different combinations of snack formulations that were studied using response surface methodology to investigate the effect of these variables on product responses (Lateral expansion, bulk density, Water absorption index, water solubility index and sensory characteristics). Sensory analysis was carried out of all extrudates for texture, color and overall acceptability. Multiple regression equations were obtained to describe the effects of each variable on product responses. The optimum operating conditions for development of germinated wheat, green gram and Bengal gram flour extrudate were 132°C of barrel temperature, 275 rpm of screw speed, 17 % offeed moisture, 6.5% of green gram flour and 23.1% of Bengal gram flour. The responses predicted by the software for these optimum process conditions resulted lateral expansion of 169.59%, bulk density, 0.263g/cm³; water solubility index, 19.08; water absoption index, 13.88g/g; and overall acceptability value of 7.38.

Introduction

Whey is the serum or watery part of the milk that remains after separation of curd that result from the acid or proteolytic enzyme mediated co-agulation of milk. It is major by product of dairy industries manufacturing products like channa, paneer, cheese and chakka (Sharma and Bhatia, 1999).The current world production of whey is estimated at about 165 million tones, in that cheese whey accounts for nearly 95 % of total whey. In India near about one million tonne of whey is annually derived, in that major source of whey is from the production of channa, paneer and shrikhand production. This is mostly thrown away as a waste which creates environmental pollution, also in that way about 70, 000 tonnes of Nutritious solids are lost (Puranik, 1999).

Introduction

Fish and shellfish constitute an important component of global nutrition. Fish protein is an essential source of nutrients for many people, especially in developing countries. Health benefits of fish oil in preventing heart attack and other cardiovascular diseases are well appreciated. Mounting evidences suggest that the benefits of fish consumption are not limited to the well-known effects of fish oil alone. Fish is also a rich source of protein containing all essential amino acids, which is required for the body maintenance and muscular build-up. The protein content in most of the raw finfish meat is in the range of 17 to 22% (g per 100 g), while the cooked portions of some fish such as tuna may have as high as 30% protein. The amino acid score of fish protein compares well with that of whole egg protein, which is considered as a standard protein source. Fish is also rich in the non-protein amino acid - taurine, which has a unique role in neurotransmission. Apart from nutritional properties, fish proteins also possess a number of functional properties such as emulsifying, foaming, gel forming, water binding and fat binding properties, which are important in product formulations. These functional properties are mainly attributed to the major meaning myofibrillar proteins, actin and myosin.

During the processing of fish only the fillets are generally retained while the bulk of product (up to 66%) is discarded. About 30% of the total fish weight remains as waste in the form of skins and bones during preparation of fish fillets. This waste is an excellent raw material for the preparation of high value products including protein foods. The utilization of fish wastes help to eliminate harmful environmental aspects and improve quality in fish processing. Skin and bone are sources of high collagen content. The average quantity of waste generated during fish and shellfish processing operations (based on average annual marine landing data) is indicated in Table 1.

The commercial aquaculture for crustaceans in India has become a huge success due to the introduction of new species, the improved hatchery production of seeds, scientific management of culture practices and the availability of good quality feed and other input. Introduction of new species like Letopenaeus vennamei has resulted in increased yield and productivity. The farming of this species has already been established in coastal Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka and Tamil Nadu and gaining momentum in Kerala and other states.

Similarly, farmers in both coastal and land locked States have gone for large scale farming of Giant Freshwater Prawn (Macrobrachium rosenbergii) popularly called “Scampi” which is having high demand in both domestic and international markets. In order to meet the raw material requirement of large number of processing units established for export and also to meet the domestic demand. The state of Andhra Pradesh accounts for more than 50 per cent of the cultured Scampi production and also in terms of area under culture. During the year 2013-14 the estimated production of L. vannamei was 406018 tons whereas the black tiger export of cultured prawn from the country was to the tune of 41947 tons and that of scampi, it was 1401 tons (MPEDA 2008).

Industrial processing of prawn results in huge quantities of waste in the form of head and shell. Since the exported shrimp products are mainly of peeled items, the shell waste produced is quite high. The head and shell constitute nearly 60% by weight of the whole prawn depending on the species and size. In India its availability is estimated to be 100,000 tonnes annually and it is the single largest fishery waste of the country. Crab shell and squilla are other important raw materials available from marine sector.

Fat
• Utmost significant slaughterhouse byproduct is fat obtained from intestines, kidneys, channel and other offals
• Edible ox fat is rendered and the obtained product is called premier jus (higher grade fat) which is differentiated into oleo oil and oleo stearin
• If all edible ox fat is rendered, it is called dripping and it used for human consumption
• Inedible fat is used for soap manufacturing
• The highest value fat from pig is recovered from peritoneal lining (leaf fat), and the subsequent highest value recovered from back fat, mesentery and omentum
• Sheep fat is separated into oleo oil and oleo stearin because of its strong flavour
• Mutton fat is harder and its stearin content is more than ox or pig and therefore, it is applied on the top of meat paste glass jar as a protective layer
Rendering of edible fat
Three principal procedure of rendering of edible fat are:
i. Wet rendering
ii. Dry rendering
iii. Continuous low-temperature rendering

11.1 Introduction

Fermented foods are the result of the activity of a few specialized types of micro-organisms among the thousands of species known to mankind. Success of such processes is depended upon the control of environmental conditions ensuring the growth of the desired microbial species and inhibition of others. The fermentation can be broadly defined as the process in which the carbohydrate or like compounds are broken down, under anaerobic or aerobic conditions [171]. The basic role of micro-organisms is to breakdown the organic compounds to get energy for their metabolic activities. From ancient times, people all over the world have developed traditional processes for production of alcoholic beverages (wine) either from natural sugar such as in wine or by degrading the starchy materials (beer). Fruit wines referred to as ‘Soma’ in our ancient scriptures have been part of food of man and were used as medicine, might have originated accidentally (transformation of fruit juice beverages having exhilarating or stimulating properties). Wines are made principally from fruits like grape or extract of other fruits of various types (table wine, sparkling wine, dessert, aperitif or vermouth and pop wines) while the beers are prepared from grains like barley, rice and corn. The principal carbohydrate in grain is starch which can not be fermented directly. This process is brought about by starch splitting enzymes by germinating the grains followed by drying and storage until needed. Distillation of beer produces a variety of liquors (whisky, rum, gin, vodka), while that of wine produces the brandy. Besides, the improvement in the raw material selection, fermentation conditions and techniques, a lot of waste material is generated during fermentation process in the industries. Nevertheless, the food based industries are significant contributors to the economy of the many countries of the world (Fig 1). The global market value of food fermentation based industries is estimated to be around 250 million US dollars. Interestingly, more than 10% of this accounts for alcoholic beverages (Fig 2) with projected increase of US$ 27 billions in 1989 to 40 billions in 1990 [93,123,123,129].

1. INTRODUCTION

Wild fruits are highly nutritious and contain vitamins, carbohydrates, protein and minerals in higher quantity than majority of other common cultivated fruits. They are also a rich source of several bioactive substances, compared to the cultivated fruits. In India,these wild fruit trees grow abundantly across an altitudinal gradient of Himalaya and the majority of them bear fruits during summer. Fruit varieties are consumed by the local inhabitants of the region. At the same time, there are numerous under exploited species of wild fruits having high potential for exploitation viz., Bael (Aegle marmelos CL.), Berberis asiatica DC, Seabuckthorn (Hippophae sp.,) Rubus sp., Prunus armeniaca L., Karonda (Carissa carandas L.) Bitter Almond (Prunus amygdalus Batsch Smith), Feijoa sp. Among the wild fruits, Hippophae sp.was found to be economically efficient, followed by Aegle marmelos, Rubus ellipticus Smith, respectively. Wild apricot (Prunus armeniaca L.), a semi-domesticated and less utilized fruit of the higher Himalaya, provides better economic returns on an annual basis. Attempts have been made to utilize these wild fruits as a source of income, particularly for poor rural inhabitants and unemployed youths of the region by making a variety of edible products such as jam, jelly, juice, squash, sauce, wine etc. Here in this article, production of wine, vermouth and brandy from wild fruits would be focused. But before discussing preparation of wine and brandy in detail, we shall be describing the general process of wine and brandy making first, then the products from the specific wild fruits.

Vacreation: The pasteurization of the milk or cream under reduced pressure by direct steam is called vacreation. This process removes feed and other volatile flavors from cream and to pasteurize it for butter making. This is also called vacuum pasteurization (Plate 623).

Vacuum: The state of negative pressure. It is equal to atmospheric pressure minus absolute pressure.

Vacuum cooling: A technique of cooling vegetable (leafy vegetables, asparagus, brussels sprouts) having a high surface to volume ratio; rapidly and uniformly by boiling off some of their water at 10C and at low pressure (5 mm of Hg) into a sealed container. The produce is cooled by evaporation of water from the tissue surface and is more rapid than hydro cooling (Plate 624).

Vacuum drier: A drier used to dry heat sensitive products where low pressure lowers the temperature, helps to retain natural flavour and minimizes oxidation and browning is called vacuum drier (Plate 625).