eChapters

3.1 Introduction

Energy comes in many forms like chemical, radiant, mechanical, electrical, nuclear etc and can transform from one type to another. Energy can also be transferred or moved from one object to another. Electromagnetic (EM) radiation is a form of energy that can take many forms, such as radio waves, microwaves, X-rays and gamma rays even sunlight is also a form of EM energy. Visible light is a small portion of the EM spectrum, which contains a broad range of electromagnetic wavelengths.

Electromagnetic waves, a self –propagating transverse radiation, are created when an atomic particle, such as an electron, is accelerated by an electric field, causing it to move. The movement produces oscillating electric and magnetic fields. The electric and the magnetic components of the wave are perpendicular to each other and also perpendicular to the direction in which wave is travelling in a bundle of light energy called a photon. Photons travel in harmonic waves at the fastest speed possible in the universe: 186,282 miles per second (299,792,458 meters per second) in a vacuum, also known as the speed of light. There are three important characteristics of the electromagnetic radiation, its frequency, amplitude and speed (Figure 3.1).

    1.    Food : defined as something which is eaten / drunk by human beings or something we eat and which can be utilized by our body.

    2.    Milk and milk products like Dahi, yoghurt, paneer, cheese, Khoa etc these foods are rich sources of Vitamin A, Riboflavin and Calcium.

    3.    Meat, fish, poultry etc besides proteins these foods also provide Iron and B- complex Vitamins.

    4.    Eggs and egg products are also rich in Iron, Vitamin A and Riboflavin (B1).

    5.    Pulses, nuts and oil seeds are also a good source of thiamin, niacin, and Iron.

    6.    Strategies and measures for alleviating the world food problem require.

1. DEFINITIONS

Various definations of weed have been proposed. Weed is defined as a valueless plant growing wild, especially one that grows on cultivated ground to the exclusion or injury of the desired crop. Weed means any undesirable or troublesome plant, especially one that grows profusely where it is not wanted. The weed have also been defined a plant considered undesirable. Weeds are commonly unwanted plants in human-controlled settings, such as farm fields, gardens, lawns and parks. A weed may be any plant that grows or reproduces aggressively, or is outside its native habitat. Some plants that often are considered to be weeds are Bermuda grass, creeping Charlie, dandelion, golden rod, poison ivy, ragweed, wild carrot, wood sorrel, nutsedge etc.

    1.    Rice is a
        a)    Edible fruit    b)    Edible Vegetable
        c)    Edible flower    d)    All
    2.    Major components in cereal seeds are 
        a)    Endosperm    b)    Germ or embryo
        c)    a & b    d)    None
    3.    Bran is composed of 
        a)    Pericarp    b)    Testa
        c)    aleuron layer    d)    All
    4.    Oats contains ______________ percent of hull
        a)    50    b)    40
        c)    30    d)    20

    1.    Laminar flow hood works on the principle of 
        a)    High-efficiency particulate air filter
        b)    High-energy particulate air filter
        c)     High-efficiency pressure air filter
        d)     None
    2.    Most of the organisms are killed
        a)    121°C for 5 min.    b)    15lb/in²
        c)     a & b    d)     None
    3.    Autoclaving is not recommended for
        a)    Oils    b)    Powders
        c)     Sensitive fluids    d)     All

Introduction of Food Industry

India is one of the major food producers in the world. The food sector contributes to about 28% of India's GDP. India stands at 1st position in the world for production of cereals, milk, livestock, banana and Mango, 2nd in producing fruits and vegetables and ranks amongst top 5 in producing rice, wheat, groundnut, tea, coffee, tobacco, spices, sugar and oilseeds. India's share in global production of fruits is 10% and vegetables are 13.7%. The current consumption of fruits and vegetables is approx Rs.2 lakh crores at current prices with an estimated growth rate of 11% per annum. The growth rate is higher than cereals and milk and comparable to meet consumption

Status of Food Processing Industry

The food processing industry in India is still in a sorry state. The rural population comprising 70% including small cities, consume less than 10% of the processed foods and vegetables, whereas 60% of the processed food is consumed in four major metropolitan cities and 30% in the state capitals and big cities. Another fact is that 40% of the processed food and vegetables produced in the country in terms of value are bought by institutional buyers like Hotels, Restaurants and Defense etc. The highest growth in domestic market has been in fruit drinks, tomato ketch up and Jams.

There is another fact that India is the largest milk producer in the world, however, organized industry accounts for less than 15% of the milk produce in India. It is estimated that there may be a total production of 1100 million tons of production of food products mainly food grains, oilseeds, sugarcane and fruits/vegetables during 2011-12 and leaving marketable surplus of 870 million tons.

Experiment No.- 1
AIM
To determine the sucrose content in condensed or evaporated milk using the Lane-Eynon method.
Principle
The Lane-Eynon method is used to measure sucrose in condensed milk by utilizing the reducing properties of sugars. Sucrose, being a non-reducing sugar, is first hydrolyzed into glucose and fructose (reducing sugars). These reducing sugars then react with Fehling’s solution, producing a brick-red precipitate of cuprous oxide (Cu2O) when heated. This allows for the accurate determination of sucrose content after the hydrolysis (inversion) process.
Reactions
• Reaction of Fehling’s Solution
• CuSO4 + NaOH → Cu(OH)2 + Na2SO4
• Cu(OH)2 + Reducing Sugar (RCHO) → Cu2O (brick-red precipitate) + RCOOH
This reaction forms cuprous oxide (Cu2O), a brick-red precipitate. The intensity of this precipitate correlates with the concentration of reducing sugar in the sample, providing a way to determine sucrose content.

Key facts

Agriculture
    
·    Agriculture production (plant growth) is highly dependent on climate since crop growth is influenced by solar radiation, temperature and precipitation and sensitive to climate variability and weather extremes (droughts, floods, severe storms).
    
·    Climate change is projected to have an effect on local agriculture and the net result could be harmful (e.g. frequent droughts, salinization of agriculture land due to sea level rise) or beneficial, (e.g. enhance CO₂ and higher yield, longer growing season, increased precipitation) or mixed.
    
·    Climate change or a doubling of GHGs (2 x CO₂) is projected to cause both gains and losses of agriculture land.
    
·    Each crop has a specific temperature range at which vegetative and reproductive growth will proceed at the optimal rate and exposures to extreme temperatures during these phases can impact growth and yield. Higher temperatures during the reproductive stage of development can affect pollen viability, fertilization and grain or fruit formation. 
    
·    Warming generally allow plants to grow faster that are below their optimum temperature, however for cereal crops faster growth means there is less time for the grain itself to grow and mature, reducing yields. 
    
·    Night-time temperatures are rising faster than daytime temperatures and are expected to continue rise in the future. According to International Rice Research Institute (IRRI), Philippines, the rise of night time temperature decreases rice yield by 10% for each 1°C increase in growing-season night time temperature in the dry season.

A) Selection of Dairy Cattle

Proper selection is the first and the most important step to be adopted in dairying. Records are the basis of selection and hence proper identification of animals and record keeping is essential. Cross-breed animals with exotic inheritance of about 50 percent are preferable.
 
Bringing animals from different agro-climatic conditions causes problems due to non-adjustment in many cases. In case, purchase becomes absolutely essential it should be from similar environmental conditions as far as possible.

General selection procedures for dairy breeds

Selecting a calf in calf show, a cow in cattle show by judging is an art. A dairy farmer should build up his own herd by breeding his own herd. Following guidelines will be useful for selection of a dairy cow.

Introduction
Food laws and regulations are the legal standards of quality that regulate the manufacture, storage, distribution, sale, and marketing of food products. The major objectives of enacting the food laws and regulations are i) to maintain the quality of food produced ii) to safeguard the health of the consumers iii) to prevent exploitation of the consumer by the sellers and iv) to establish a standard of quality for different food products. In 2006 the government of India enacted the Food Safety and Standards Act, 2006 (FSSA) to consolidate all laws relating to food and to establish the Food Safety and Standards Authority of India (FSSAI) for laying down science-based standards for different articles of food and to regulate their manufacture, storage, distribution, sale and import to ensure availability of safe and wholesome food for human consumption. Various food laws enacted in our country before 2006 for different categoriesof food were:
• PFA (The Prevention of Food Adulteration Act),1954 (Act 37 of 1954)
• FPO (Fruit Products Order),1955
• Meat Food Products (Control) Order,1973
• Vegetable Oil Products (Control) Order,1998
• The Edible Oil Packing (Regulations) Order,1998
• Solvent Extracted Oil, De-oiled Meal and Meal and Edible Flour (Control) Order,1967

Abstract

The genetic improvement of crop plants is possible only through employing an appropriate breeding technique. The use of plant breeding technique depends on mode of pollination and reproduction of plant species e.g. selection and hybridization are used in sexually reproduced species, while clonal selection in asexually propagated plant species. The plant species/ varieties are usually derived through conventional techniques (vi z. introduction, selection, hybridization etc.), which are commonly used in various breeding programmes, while some modern techniques viz. transgenic breeding and marker assisted selection etc. are also available which are equally effective for improvement of all crop species. Various techniques applied for development of new varieties and hybrids are briefly described in this section.

Plant breeding is an art, science and technology of improving genetic make-up of crop plants in relation to their economic usefulness for mankind. Various techniques/methods of breeding used for genetic improvement of crop plants are: introduction, selection, hybridization, mutation, transgenic breeding etc.

Classification of Breeding Techniques: Plant breeding techniques are classified as conventional and modern breeding techniques.

Fruits, the vivid and delightful offerings of the nature, undergo remarkable transformations as they travel from the orchard to our dining tables. These changes indicate the significance of post-harvest physiology, which is the scientific study that reveals the secrets of how fruits behave after they are picked, including the mechanisms that affect fruit quality and how long it may be stored. The next section provides definitions of the various stages and key players involved in the processes of fruit maturity, ripening, and post harvest physiology. These topics will be further explored in the subsequent sub-sections of this chapter.

Fruit developmental physiology

The life cycle of horticultural commodities (fruits and vegetables) can be effectively categorized into three primary physiological stages after fruit set or initiation, namely growth, maturation, and senescence. Still, a lack of obvious differentiation exists among the several stages. Growth encompasses the process of cell division followed by cell enlargement, which determines the ultimate size of the product. Maturation typically begins prior to the cessation of growth and involves various activities across different commodities. The stages of growth and maturity are commonly denoted as the developmental phase. Senescence can be described as the phase in which anabolic biochemical processes transition into catabolic processes, resulting in the ageing and eventual demise of the tissue. Ripening, a term specifically used for fruit, is typically regarded as the initial phase of senescence that occurs during the later phases of development. Defining the transition from growth to senescence is rather straightforward.

11.1 Introduction

Fermented foods are the result of the activity of a few specialized types of micro-organisms among the thousands of species known to mankind. Success of such processes is depended upon the control of environmental conditions ensuring the growth of the desired microbial species and inhibition of others. The fermentation can be broadly defined as the process in which the carbohydrate or like compounds are broken down, under anaerobic or aerobic conditions [171]. The basic role of micro-organisms is to breakdown the organic compounds to get energy for their metabolic activities. From ancient times, people all over the world have developed traditional processes for production of alcoholic beverages (wine) either from natural sugar such as in wine or by degrading the starchy materials (beer). Fruit wines referred to as ‘Soma’ in our ancient scriptures have been part of food of man and were used as medicine, might have originated accidentally (transformation of fruit juice beverages having exhilarating or stimulating properties). Wines are made principally from fruits like grape or extract of other fruits of various types (table wine, sparkling wine, dessert, aperitif or vermouth and pop wines) while the beers are prepared from grains like barley, rice and corn. The principal carbohydrate in grain is starch which can not be fermented directly. This process is brought about by starch splitting enzymes by germinating the grains followed by drying and storage until needed. Distillation of beer produces a variety of liquors (whisky, rum, gin, vodka), while that of wine produces the brandy. Besides, the improvement in the raw material selection, fermentation conditions and techniques, a lot of waste material is generated during fermentation process in the industries. Nevertheless, the food based industries are significant contributors to the economy of the many countries of the world (Fig 1). The global market value of food fermentation based industries is estimated to be around 250 million US dollars. Interestingly, more than 10% of this accounts for alcoholic beverages (Fig 2) with projected increase of US$ 27 billions in 1989 to 40 billions in 1990 [93,123,123,129].

Electrophoresis

The mobility of ions in an electric field is the basis for the separation method known as electrophoresis. Ions that are negatively charged move toward a positive electrode, while those that are positively charged move toward a negative electrode. Usually, one electrode is biased either positively or negatively, and the other is at the ground for safety reasons. Ions can be distinguished from one another based on their size, shape, and overall charge, which determine their migration rates.

Poly Acrylamide Gel Electrophoresis (PAGE)

Introduction

Electrophoresis is an electrochemical process in which substances with a net electric charge migrate under the influence of an electric current. This migration occurs in an agar gel or a liquid- filled buffered matrix such as cellulose acetate. Positively charged substances travel toward the cathode (negative electrode), while negatively charged substances go toward the anode (positive electrode). Different substances move at different rates depending on their charge. This movement is called electrophoretic mobility.

Proteins are charged molecules. They have a positive as well as a negative charge. Among proteins, particularly caseins, they have different contents. The charge density also varies depending on the molecular weight. Proteins have a net negative charge at a pH above 4.6, and hence they move towards the anode (positive electrode) when subjected to an electric field under alkaline conditions. Due to differences in the charge of individual protein fractions, their migration rates also differ and are hence separated into distinct bands. These bands are stained with the dye amido- black, destained with 7% acetic acid, and observed for the electrophoretic pattern.

Introduction 
Chapter 16, “Global Warming and Food Security” delves into the intricate relationship between global warming and food security. The chapter opens by defining the multifaceted concept of food security, which includes availability, access, utilization, and stability. It emphasizes the critical importance of these components in ensuring a stable and reliable food supply. The chapter then explores various challenges to food security, highlighting the impact of rapid population growth, climate change, land and water scarcity, poverty, inequality, and conflicts. It underscores how these challenges are compounded by global warming, which exacerbates environmental stressors such as rising temperatures, altered weather patterns, and extreme weather events. The implications for agriculture are profound, affecting crop yields, livestock health, and overall food production. The section on the causes and consequences of global warming outlines key phenomena such as risi ng temperatures, changing weather patterns, melting glaciers, and ocean acidification. It illustrates how these factors disrupt agricultural systems and food distribution networks, leading to increased food insecurity. To address these issues, the chapter discusses various strategies for enhancing food security in a changing climate. These include adopting climate-smart agricultural practices, diversifying crop and livestock systems, developing climateresilient crop varieties, and implementing efficient water management strategies. It also highlights the importance of policy and institutional interventions, supportive measures for smallholder farmers, and research and development initiatives. The chapter concludes with a discussion on the need for collaboration and partnerships among various stakeholders, including governments, international organizations, and the private sector, to effectively address the dual challenges of global warming and food security. Global warming, a consequence of human-induced climate change, has emerged as one of the most pressing challenges of our time. As the Earth’s average temperature continues to rise, it brings about far-reaching impacts that extend to various sectors, including food and agriculture. The intricate relationship between global warming and agriculture is of paramount importance, as agricultural systems are both vulnerable to climate change and significant contributors to greenhouse gas emissions. Understanding the impacts of global warming on

    1.    Fortification of common salt is done with 
        a)    Potassium iodide    b)    Potassium iodate
        c)    Both a & b    d)    None
    2.    Vinegar is a 
        a)    Class-I preservative    b)    Class-II preservative
        c)    Natural preservative    d)    a & c
    3.    As per FSSAI regulations, the permitted level of Sulphur dioxide in RTS beverages is not more than ______ ppm
        a)    100    b)    70
        c)    150    d)    80
    4.    Sodium nitrite is a
        a)    Preservative    b)    Buffering agent
        c)    Curing agent    d)    Flavour enhancer

1. Introduction

There is intense commercial interest in dehydrated fruit and vegetable products especially mango powder, banana powder, orange powder, papaya cereal flakes to powder, tomato juice powder and other vegetable powders, which are in great demand for soups, biscuit type cookies supplemented with fruit powders (Ana Maria et al. 2009; Sunita and Chauhan 2008), pizza mixes and sauces. Natural fruit and vegetable powders are gaining lot of popularity in recent years as they are very easy to handle after production, require minimum storage space and they are attractive. Tamarind powder is developed from tamarind fruit (Tamarindus indica) (Manjunath et al. 1991) and recently cashew apple and guava residues from fruit juice industry were successfully converted into fruit powders and used at different levels of wheat flour substitution for cookies formulation (Ana Maria et al.2009) and fruit puree like papaya can be mixed with cereal flour to prepare slurry and after gelatinization, the slurry can be useful for preparing drum dried flakes and powder (Sunita and Chauhan 2008). Tropical fruits are exotic in flavor but their juices and purees are seldom available in dehydrated powder (James, 1971). Citrus juice concentrates were produced during world war II in powdered form by using spray, drum, vacuum-puff, and freeze drying (USDA, 1962). The preservation of fruits and vegetables by dehydration offers a unique method, which may be considered as an alternative low cost preservation technique. A shift from fresh to more and more processed foods with significant value addition is bound to occur sooner or later considering the socio-economic changes taking place in the country and the rapid integration of Indian economy with global system. Most popular brands are found in the “ready to consume” food sector.

18.1 Introduction

The Packaging Institute International describes packaging as the enclosure of items, packages or products in a wrapped pouch, box, bag, cup, can, tray, tube, bottle or other container for protection, preservation, containment, communication, performance and utility. To an engineer or a scientist, it is technical matter as it is a system designed for efficient delivery of safe food products with high quality, via each and every stage of distribution chain, from production of raw material to food manufacture, packaging, retail, wholesale, consumer, disposal and finally recycling or of resource resurgence. The extent of food packaging is literally broad as it encompasses technological activities such as graphic and machinery design, package manufacture and development, shelf life testing, distribution and marketing. Food packaging science is a discipline which applies principles from four major areas of science (materials science, food science, information science and socioeconomics) to understand the properties of packaging materials, packaging requirements of foods and the packaging system. Both material science and food science have been two major contributors for food packaging development. Material science is important to understand the mechanical strength, barrier properties, appearance and physical and chemical properties of paper, glass, metal, polymer and composite. Food science is important to understand the deterioration kinetics of foods (such as microbial growth, lipid oxidation, moisture loss or gain) governs the food shelf life. Food packaging technology is a science based solutions to address specific food packaging needs; examples are tamper evident packaging, microwavable packaging, modified atmospheric packaging, and controlled atmospheric packaging which are aimed at enhancing safety, quality and convenience for the consumer.

1. Introduction The chapter aims to bring out the potential benefits of radiation processing technology for value-addition of millets. How the radiation processing technology can be exploited for making millets as a popular staple food would be the central theme. The key focus is to establish if irradiation (the term generally used for radiation processing of any material) can be employed for making millets for different purposes relevant to farmers and consumers. In order to understand and prove, we would list out the challenges involved in developing the market for millets. The key points that need to be considered for this go-to-market strategy for millets are : a) Millet grains have a long shelf-life, much better than the popular grains e.g., rice and wheat, consumed worldwide, but millet flour shelf life is significantly much shorter.