eChapters

This chapter introduces the principles used to preserve egg quality and extend shelf life after laying. It examines deterioration mechanisms during storage, including moisture loss, carbon-dioxide loss, albumen thinning and weakening of the vitelline membrane. Refrigeration, thermostabilization, shell coating, oiling, controlled and modified atmospheres, water-glass preservation and emerging non-thermal approaches are discussed. The chapter also introduces kinetic shelf-life modelling and time–temperature concepts for predicting quality deterioration. Emphasis is placed on maintaining an unbroken cold chain and controlling temperature and humidity during storage.

This chapter introduces the processing of shell eggs into industrial egg products. It classifies products according to egg fraction and physical state, including whole egg, albumen, yolk, liquid, frozen and dried products. Breaking and separation operations, liquid egg production, pasteurization, freezing, dehydration, spray drying and desugarization are discussed. The chapter also covers quality control, packaging and storage of processed egg products. Particular attention is given to balancing microbiological safety with functional properties during pasteurization and processing.

This chapter introduces the concepts of internal and external egg quality and explains the methods used to measure important quality attributes. It covers shell quality, shell strength, cleanliness, shape, albumen quality, yolk quality, air-cell characteristics and freshness. Classical indices such as Haugh unit, yolk index and specific gravity are discussed alongside candling and modern non-destructive instrumental techniques. The chapter also explains how egg quality changes during storage through moisture and carbon-dioxide loss and provides a scientific basis for interpreting quality measurements and applying them in commercial grading.

This chapter introduces systematic approaches for controlling biological, chemical and physical hazards throughout the egg chain. It explains the seven principles of HACCP and their application to shell eggs and egg products. Prerequisite programmes, GMP, GHP, FSSAI regulations, international regulatory frameworks, traceability, recall management and risk communication are discussed. A worked HACCP plan for liquid egg demonstrates how hazards and critical control points can be identified and controlled. The chapter emphasizes that egg safety requires an integrated farm-to-fork approach rather than relying solely on processing-plant controls.

Introduction

Proper electrical wiring and earthing are crucial for laboratory safety and functionality. A laboratory houses several installations/equipment that demand stable/continuous power supply. Inappropriate or faulty wiring and earthing may lead to significant risks, including electrical shocks, damage to equipment, and even incidence of fire. Therefore, understanding the requirements of electrical wiring and earthing is essential for designing, construction, and maintenance of laboratory. This chapter aims to provide a basic knowledge of electrical wiring and earthing necessary for a laboratory. Importance of earthing in mitigating electrical hazards and ensuring integrity of electrical installations are also described.

Basics of Electrical Wiring

Basic understanding of electrical wiring is necessary for laboratory safety and efficient electrical functioning. The potential difference between two electrical points (negative and positive) is known as Voltage, which drives the flow of electric current. This is measured as volt (V). The rate of flow of electricity in a circuit is known as Current (I), which is measured as ampere (A). Current can be either direct (DC) or alternating (AC). Opposition/resistance experienced in the flow of current in circuit is known as Resistance (R) and it is measured in ohms (Ω). Higher the resistance means lesser the current flows at a given voltage. The rate at which electrical energy is transferred/utilized in an electric circuit is known as Power (P), which is measured in watt (W). The Power can be calculated as the product of voltage and current (P = V × I).

Abstract

Increasing global demand for ‘fresh-like’ processed food products has forced food industries to investigate into various minimal processing techniques. Food processing in general has been associated with thermal processing, alone or in various combination with chemical and mechanical preservation and processing methods. However, thermal processing methods are energy intensive in nature and tend to reduce product quality and freshness at the cost of shelf-life gain. Advance technique such as microwave, radio-frequency and freeze drying do maintain the product quality but their implementation at industrial scale involves high operational and maintenance cost. An ideal processing method therefore would be one that can process food products without losing its quality, is energy efficient and is easily scalable. In this chapter, we discuss about ‘Electrohydrodynamic (EHD) Drying’, which is can be classified as a minimal processing technique. The heat and mass transfer principles involved in EHD drying have been extensively discussed and so has been the key consideration for designing an EHD drying system.

Electromagnetic and advanced heating technologies offer rapid and energy-efficient alternatives to conventional food processing. These systems use microwaves, radio frequency, electrical resistance, infrared radiation, lasers, photonic energy and dielectric heating to generate heat within food or directly at its surface. Faster and more uniform energy transfer can improve microbial inactivation, shorten processing time and reduce damage to nutrients and sensory characteristics. The chapter explains the principles, mechanisms, applications and nutritional effects of microwave, radio-frequency, ohmic and infrared heating. It also considers laser-based and photonic techniques. Particular attention is given to heating uniformity, product properties, equipment control, energy efficiency and the prevention of underprocessed areas.

Introduction

The basic physiological structures of mammary glands in all species are almost same and are located externally in order to fulfill the milk requirement of neonates after parturition. The process of secretion of milk from the mammary glands is known as lacto genesis. Milk provides an almost complete nutrition to neonates from birth till weaning period. It is a complex mixture of various constituents like:

Lipids such a striacyl glycerols(TAG),phospholipids,cholesterols and other sterols, free fatty acids and fat-soluble vitamins

Carbohydrates such as lactose, oligosaccharides

Proteins such a scaseins, α-lactalbumin, β-lactoglobulin, immunoglobulin’s, bovine serum albumin, lactoferrin, lysozyme, enzymes, hormones and growth factors

Non-protein nitrogenous compounds like urea, creatine, creatinine, uric acid and amino acids

Major and minor minerals, water-soluble vitamins and cells (leucocytes, macrophages, and epithelial cells).

Emerging preservation technologies are being developed to meet increasing expectations for food safety, nutritional quality, sustainability and longer shelf life. Greater investigation remains necessary to understand their effects, limitations and suitability for large-scale industrial application. This chapter examines innovative physical, chemical and biological methods used at different stages of the food chain. Technologies include plasma-activated water, cold atmospheric plasma, advanced oxidation, electrolysed water, space-food preservation, hurdle systems and biopreservation. Their mechanisms involve reactive species, microbial membrane damage, oxidation, combined environmental stresses and beneficial biological agents. The chapter assesses their applications, advantages and disadvantages while highlighting research, regulation, process standardisation, equipment cost and commercial scalability.

Introduction

Food fraud is not new it can be traced back to ancient Rome and Athens, where regulations prohibiting the adulteration of beverages with flavours and colours were in place. It exists since the food trade has been started. Food fraud affects all food supply chains, thus the entire food sector. Due to globalisation and the increasing complexity of supply lines, food supply chains are becoming more vulnerable to food fraud (Robson et al., 2021a). A fraud is “any act or omission relating to the use or presentation of false, incorrect, or incomplete statements or documents, or non disclosure of information in violation of a specific obligation, and any other illegal activity affecting the financial interests” (EU No. 2017/1371).

1. INTRODUCTION

The growing demand of consumers for fresh, safe, chemical, additive or preservative free and minimally processed foods has compelled the food scientists and technologists to develop many non-thermal food processing technologies which cause minimum nutritional and sensory qualities impairment in the processed foods. In this endeavour, consumers prefer minimally or non-thermally processed foods rather than the thermally processed one. Today, non-thermal technologies like High Pulse Electric Field (HPEF) processing, High Hydrostatic Pressure (HHP) processing or Hight Pressure Processing (HPP) food irradiation, ultraviolet light, ultra sound, arc discharge, oscillating magnetic fields, light pulses, plasma, chemicals (ozone, carbon dioxide, argon), and the combined methods of these technologies are the major areas of research in the process and food engineering in order to find their suitability for processing of various food products.

Abstract

Consumers are now more conscious about quality and source of their foods. Attempts made to determine the quality of food materials are numerous, but most of them are destructive in nature. In recent years, nondestructive methods of quality evaluation have gained momentum and a considerable attempts have been made to develop them. This paper describes application of these non-emerging technologies: magnetic resonance imaging, x-ray computer tomography, near infrared spectroscopy and a few other important techniques for determination of different quality attributes with special emphasis on grain, and discusses their pros and cons for practical exploitation.

This chapter introduces emerging technologies and future directions shaping egg science and the egg industry. It examines novel and non-thermal processing, active and intelligent packaging, sustainable packaging, egg analogues and plant-based alternatives, precision layer farming and digital tools. Nutraceutical and pharmaceutical applications are also explored. The chapter evaluates the environmental footprint and sustainability of egg production and identifies research gaps and opportunities, particularly for India. It concludes with a future-oriented perspective on improving cold-chain infrastructure, grading, food safety, welfare, value addition, sensing and evidence-based development of the Indian egg industry.

Introduction

All the worldwide cuisines generally rely on plant-based edible oils as the main cooking ingredient due to their unique chemical composition, further presence of unsaturated fatty acids in plant-based oils makes it a healthy complement in the diet. Lipids are known to provide almost double calories than carbohydrates. For ages, vegetable oils have contributed maximally to our nutrition and economics, but their authenticity is still a considerable issue (Firestone and Reina, 1996) as for more profitability fraudulent blends lower grade oils to high-grade expensive oils.

14.1 Introduction

The increasing human population and changing life styles have resulted in a huge demand for processed and packaged foods. As a result of this demand, large amounts of water, air, electricity and fuel are consumed on a daily basis for food processing, transportation and preservation. Although not one of the most heavily polluting, the food industry does contribute to the increase in volume of waste produced [1]. There is an increasing pressure from regulatory bodies through incentives, legislation and financial penalties to minimize waste generation and encourage adoption of eco-friendly options for waste management. Nanotechnology is a panacea for food waste management.

Employee motivation and job enrichment are described as two management techniques used to improve human behaviour and attitude towards work, with a view to utilize available human resources more efficiently and thus make man-management more effective. Just as the employee has certain wants that the organization is expected to satisfy, the organization too expects certain types of behaviour usually termed as ‘Direction’ or ‘Motivation’. Obviously this managerial function is not so easy, as it involves many problems, and it is these problems and their possible solutions that one is concerned.
Job enrichment is also a motivational problem created by the alienation of employees from their work, or by lack of their interest in their work. Here the problem is how to make the work more interesting, purposeful and acceptable to employees so that they may perform it more enthusiastically and with a greater sense of responsibility. Like motivation this is also a problem of human behaviour and work attitude. In fact both employee motivation and job enrichment are the problems which every supervisor and manager has to face while working and making their subordinates work.

Probiotics have been newly defined as ‘live microbes which passage the gastrointestinal tract and in doing so benefit the health of the consumer differing from the earlier definitions which focused on probiotic interfaces with original intestinal microbes (Fuller, 1989). These definitions of probiotic bacteria generally agree that probiotic bacteria should be living organisms toward consult health benefits. Probiotics have been reported to play a therapeutic role by modulating immunity, lowering cholesterol, improving lactose tolerance and preventing some cancers (Kailasapathy and Chin, 2000).

1. Introduction

Energy balance means keeping an account of how the flow of energy is taking place in and out of any system or process. It helps the engineers to estimate the total energy requirement and identify the area for conservation of energy in any process. In food processing the concept of energy balance is applicable in unit operation such as blanching, drying, evaporation, freezing, refrigeration, distillation, crystallization. The scopes of energy balance in food industry are:

i) Streamlining and reduction of energy consumption in the existing process.

ii) Selection and sizing of any equipment and process.

iii) Economic analysis of alternate process/technology.

iv) Designing new economically viable process/technology

Introduction

Over the years, processed food industry has become the largest growing industry in the world. The convenience food industry with the state of the art technology has been proved very successful in reaching every household and have started replacing fresh and healthy foods with the processed ones (Srinivasan and Shende, 2016).

Demand for processed and convenience foods are constantly on rise and convenience food segment is rising by leaps and bounds. Changing life style, food habits, displacement of rural population to urban centres, insufficient time to prepare healthy food and changing socio economic needs have led to the industrialization of the food supply and resulted in the development of convenience foods and today a great variety of the same are available for sale to the consumer throughout the world (Tillotson, 2003).

These convenience foods are available readily, convenient, inexpensive with pleasing organoleptic quality, requires minimal or no preparation before consumption. Varieties of convenience foods which are available in the market play a prominent role in the food choice of today’s consumer, and they include frozen and canned vegetables, bakery products, soups, sauces, prepared meat and fish, chilled and frozen dairy products as well as ready to eat and shelf stable products (Tillotson, 2003).

Rapid switchover of the consumer from the traditional dining practices to fast food centres, generally feed on quick and easily made products called fast foods, often termed as unhealthy junk foods. These foods are rich in saturated fatty acids, several refined components, high carbohydrates etc., which ultimately lead to the negative impact on physical and mental health of the consumer, contributing to several chronic diseases such as cardiovascular complications, cancer, atherosclerosis, liver disease, type 11 diabetes (Veggie et al., 2018) etc.

Therefore, focussing much about the health of the consumer, there is a great need for a healthy and a balanced diet to meet the basic needs of the human body (Mendes et al 2013) with an appealing organoleptic properties and appearance.

Abstract

Design, operation and optimization of dryers demands the calculation of energy consumption, in most cases in the form of thermal energy, equipment sizing, temperature and moisture distribution of solids as well as temperature and humidity distribution of drying air. Energy calculations are very important as drying is a widespread process in a variety of industries and is highly energy demanding. In the energy analysis of the process the first step is the estimation of the minimum energy requirement followed by the estimation of energy rejection through solids stream and especially through drying air. Increase of thermal efficiency is always willing and the two most common ways for its achievement is the application of heat exchange between cold feeding air and relatively hot rejecting drying air and hot air recirculation. The later is also employed for the adjustment of air temperature and humidity gradient through the dryer. The combination of a heat pump with the dryer decreases considerably the thermal energy consumption but demands electricity and the method can be beneficial in cases of excess electricity production in the process plant, e.g. by cogeneration. Utilization of exhaust hot air from the main drying unit for the predrying of wet solids can also decrease the total energy requirement. The application of humidity adsorption from the feed air increases its drying potential, but regeneration of adsorbent is required. Grand composite curve of the process plant can reveal potential heat sources from different unit operations.

Fishing is the most energy-intensive food production method in the world today and depends almost completely on internal combustion engines based on oil fuels. Energy is spent during the design, construction and operation of vessels. Energy loss can take place during different stages such as design, construction, operation and maintenance of boats and at harbor.

The energy costs for a particular fishery is determined principally by the technology in use, the local economic conditions, including taxes, subsidies, labour cost and operational cost. (O. Gulbrandson, FAO, 2012)

Only about one-third of the energy generated by the engine reaches the propeller and, in the case of a small trawler, only one-third of this is actually spent on useful work such as pulling the net.

The approximate distribution of energy created from the burning of fuel.

1. Introduction

1.1 Engineered health rice

Rice is one of the leading food crops in the world and sustains two-third of the world’s population providing 20% of the world’s dietary energy supply. It can be polished and marketed as white rice or can be marketed with the bran layer left intact as brown rice. The dry grain can then be steamed or boiled by the consumer to rehydrate and cook it (Kato, 2006). Despite its primary importance as a staple food, rice has several disadvantages. Primarily, rice is low in protein and high in starch. The low protein levels in rice can lead to protein malnutrition in societies where rice is the primary constituent of the diet. Deficiencies in essential amino acids may also result from a diet primarily comprised of rice. For example, lysine is the essential amino acid found in the lowest quantity in rice. The human body needs lysine for proper growth and repair of tissues. It is also important in the production of various enzymes, hormones and disease-fighting antibodies (Kato, 2006). The production of broken rice is nearly 15-20% of total production of rice (Bhullar and Bhullar, 2013). The broken rice is generally used for rice flour production and Indian traditional foods such as Idli, Dosa and weaning foods etc. Ugwu et al., (2012) reported that the rice broken can be utilized for the production of poly (3-hydroxybutyrate). The major value addition of broken rice is possible by reconstructing it into rice-shape and fortifying it with desired nutrients or micronutrients, which is a big challenge in terms of making the product acceptable to the consumers.

One approach to overcome the above mentioned challenges is to prepare artificial rice kernels or rice analogues by extrusion, in which the vitamins are embedded and consequently do not separate from the rice grains. This will utilize mainly the broken rice which is either discarded or sold at subsidized prices as the cattle feed. Furthermore, embedding makes extraction of the vitamin by rinsing or cooking more difficult and may provide a certain protection against oxidation, because the vitamins can be enveloped by a protective matrix (Steiger, 2010). The fortification of commercially produced staple foods allows exposed populations to benefit without making major changes to their eating habits (Kunz, 2009).The rice analogues prepared from extrusion can be used by addition of an appropriate proportion of water at a temperature ranging from 90°C-100°C, whereupon the rice product rehydrates within three minutes to obtain a product having the desired appearance and organoleptic properties to simulate natural rice grains (Harrow and Martin, 1982).

Introduction

The COVID 19 pandemic is threatening food systems and international food security. According to the World Food Programme (WFP), that says the amount of individuals facing crisis hunger is anticipated to virtually double this year to 265 million. Already, quite 820 million individuals don’t get enough food to eat, and another a hundred thirty five million individuals face acute hunger or starvation. Increase that, the economic destabilization caused by COVID-19, and another a hundred thirty million people are in danger of starvation by the top of 2020, says WFP. The quickness with that a health crisis transforms in an exceedingly hunger crisis shows however fragile is our food systems to shocks of any nature.

The scientific community working in the field of crop protection is experiencing an increasing academic and industrial interest in the discovery and development of new bio-insecticides as environmentally friendly pest control tools to be integrated, in combination or rotation, with chemicals in pest management programmes. In this context, Entomopathogenic nematodes (EPNs) as a bio-control agent have proven successful and are now commercially mass produced in six of the seven continents to treat pest problem in agriculture, horticulture and forest crops. They actively search for the host, including those in cryptic habitat stages of insect pests in soil environment. They can be considered as good candidates for integrated pest management in ustainable agriculture due to plants and mammals which are not adversely affected and have ease of mass production. We present a general overview on the current state of knowledge of EPN and their mutualistically associated bacteria and their utilization as biological control agent against insect pests in world and India are briefly presented in this chapter.

Introduction

Entrepreneurship has become a major driver of economic development in recent years. It involves starting new businesses or revitalizing existing ones, often through recognizing and seizing new opportunities. Entrepreneurs are individuals who organize, manage, and take on the risks of a business venture with the aim of making a profit. They identify market opportunities and introduce new technologies and organizational improvements. Entrepreneurs constantly innovate and create value from these opportunities. According to Hisrich (1990), entrepreneurs are proactive and creative individuals who can organize resources and manage risks and failures to succeed.

To grow as an entrepreneur, it is essential to develop and refine key entrepreneurial traits. These traits shape an entrepreneur’s skills and abilities, aligning with their motivations and guiding them to drive their business forward. Entrepreneurial characteristics are a mix of personal, social, and environmental factors that influence a business ecosystem. These traits play a key role in shaping a company’s goals and strategies, ultimately affecting its performance.

According to a recent study, over 94% of new businesses fail during first year of operation. Lack of funding turns to be one of the common reasons. Money is the bloodline of any business. The long painstaking yet exciting journey from the idea generation to revenue generating business needs a fuel named capital. That’s why, at almost every stage of the business, entrepreneurs find themselves asking – How do I finance my startup?

Now, when an entrepreneur require funding depends largely on the nature and type of the business. Here is a comprehensive list of funding options for startups that will help the entrepreneur to raise capital for business.

ABSTRACT

The ancient fruit “Jackfruit” is one of the most remunerative and important underutilized native fruits of India. It is extremely versatile sweet tasting fruit and vegetable rich in nutritional value. Modern technologies are evolved for the development of value-added products from jackfruit is studied in the present study. To prevent from post-harvest losses the wine production from jackfruit juice which is a very good substrate for fermentationcan be done at larger scale. Popularity of jackfruit from the limited regions can be explored over the country. There is a good scope and possibility of marketing the value added products in the country. Value addition is carried out by minimal processing by changing its form to a valuable product having more shelf life. The developed products enhance good income opportunities for farmers and also entrepreneurship opportunities for small and medium enterprises for the popularization of jackfruit to a wider region.

Keyword: Jack Fruit, Value Addition, entrepreneurial opportunities.

7.1. Introduction
Entrepreneurs serve as the catalysts for the introduction of innovative technologies and systems that ultimately lead to societal advancements. These innovations are linked to enhanced lifestyles, progressive thinking, morale, and bravery, along with an improved standard of living. National and global changes are greatly influenced by such kinds of social change. Joseph Schumpeter, an Australian famous economist, is referred to as the father of entrepreneurship. Dhirubhai Ambani was the most enterprising Indian entrepreneur. Jamsetji Tata set a bar for entrepreneurship development in India with the foundation of the Tata group. The father of entrepreneurship in India is Ratan Tata. In public health, nutrition-based entrepreneurship and self-employment are also another emerging topic nowadays. Several entrepreneurs are found in this field mostly due to the challenge of building a business and craving to control their destiny. Not only that, financial independence, personal satisfaction, relief from the frustration of working for someone else, and the opportunity to create the desired lifestyle. Nutrition entrepreneurship offers numerous business-related resources and provides services for social well-being. As for example, the transformation of raw food ingredients into consumable food products, entrepreneurship plays a key role in diversifying and commercializing agricultural products. It adds value of food, prolongs its shelf life, promotes the export of processed items, generates employment opportunities, boosts farmers’ earnings, and makes a significant contribution to the general development of rural areas. Health entrepreneurs like nutritionists, dietitians, physicians, and health counsellors run their practice and make it available for the client to listen to their problems and solve their problems through mental support, motivation, diet therapy, medication, and so on. As a result, the health burdens due to noncommunicable and communicable diseases are reduced.

Introduction

Entrepreneurship, known for its ability to drive innovation, economic development, and societal change, is a dynamic force that plays a crucial role in global advancement. However, the path of an entrepreneur is not a straightforward journey from concept to achievement. Instead, it is a complex process influenced by numerous factors, which together form the entrepreneurship development cycle. Gaining a deep understanding of this cycle, along with the entrepreneurial environment and the challenges entrepreneurs face, is essential for cultivating a thriving entrepreneurial ecosystem.

The entrepreneurship development cycle refers to the various stages that entrepreneurs go through as they turn ideas into successful ventures. The cycle starts with ideation, where entrepreneurs identify opportunities and develop innovative solutions to address unmet market needs or problems. This is followed by a feasibility assessment, during which entrepreneurs assess the potential of their ideas, considering market demand, competition, and the resources needed. After confirming the viability of their concepts, entrepreneurs move on to resource acquisition, gathering the capital, talent, and infrastructure necessary to bring their ideas to life. The subsequent phases include launching the venture, establishing a market presence, and pursuing growth through strategic decision-making and adaptability to shifting market conditions.

Introduction

Entrepreneurship is crucial for economic development, especially during crises when job losses push people to find alternative livelihoods, often turning to entrepreneurship as a means of survival. Its impact is highly beneficial, promoting growth, wealth creation, and better living standards. In developing countries like India, entrepreneurship offers a path to holistic development, particularly for disadvantaged groups traditionally dependent on agriculture. Uplaonkar and Biradar (2015) noted that entrepreneurship development effectively generates employment, increases income, reduces poverty, improves health, and ensures food and nutritional security. Recognizing the importance of entrepreneurship, stakeholders in the agricultural sector now see its positive impact on business sustainability. Verhees et al. (2011) argued that promoting entrepreneurship in agriculture can significantly reduce poverty and boost rural prosperity, directly addressing socio-economic challenges in rural areas (Bhooshan and Ranjith, 2022). Therefore, supporting the entrepreneurial ecosystem in rural sectors through programs and schemes is essential.

Introduction

Agriculture and allied sectors have always been the backbone of the Indian economy and despite concerted industrialization in the last six decades agriculture still occupies a place of pride. The significance of agriculture in the national economy arises from the role it plays in India’s national income, employment generation and export earnings; this can be seen from the provisional estimate on contribution of various sectors to the GDP in the f irst quarter of 2020-21, particularly during COVID-19 pandemic, positive percentage change (+3.4) over previous year when all other sectors have negative change.

Mushrooms is known for its delicious and nutritious food with highly digestible lysine rich protein, vitamins and minerals, Mushroom serves as a low calorie food which lacks fats and are low in carbohydrate. They are rich in folic acid, phosphorus, potassium, calcium, copper and iron and vitamin-B complex. In place of starch, mushroom contains sorbitol and linolenic acid. They are excellent sources of thiamine, riboflavin, niacin, pantothenic acid, biotin, folic acid and vitamin B-12. Further, mushrooms are also reported to have high medicinal attributes. A large number of mushrooms contain biological active polysaccharide protein complex having anti-tumor, immune-modulating and antioxidant properties.

The total milk production in the country for the year 2013-14 has been estimated at 126 million metric tonnes and the demand is expected to be 180 million tonnes by 2020. To achieve this demand annual growth rate in milk production has to be increased from the present 2.5 % to 5%. Thus, there is a tremendous scope/potential for increasing the milk production through profitable dairy farming.

a. Requirements of project report for setting up dairy units

Project report can be prepared by a beneficiary after consulting local technical persons of State Animal Husbandry Department, DRDA, Dairy Co-operative Society / Union / Federation / commercial dairy farmers.

Introduction
This method is used to determine the ‘total bacterial count’ (living and dead  organisms) by direct microscopic examination in samples of broth culture, cell suspension and milk. Simple and Gram’s staining techniques are used to stain the cells. This method is simple and a rapid. A known volume (0.01 ml) of the sample is spread over a known area (1cm2) on a glass slide. The sample is allowed to dry; then stained and examined microscopically. The average number of cells per field is determined and is then calculated by applying microscopic factor.
Materials
1. Microscopic slide with one sq. cm. area marked
2. Breed’s pipette (0.01 ml)
3. Methylene blue or Newman’s stain
4. Culture of E.coli or Bacillus subtilis
Procedure
1. Measure the diameter of microscopic field with a stage micrometer using oil immersion objective and 10X eye piece.
2. Area of field πr2.
Determination of microscopic factor (MF)

(A) Enumeration of Microbial Growth by Turbidity Measurement
Method and Estimation of Generation Time
Introduction
Bacterial growth usually refers to reproduction-increase in population sizerather than to enlargement of mycelia cells. “Reproduction in bacteria occurs mainly through binary (binary means one cell becomes two) or transverse fission that results in the formation of two daughter cells. This is repeated at intervals by each new daughter cell in turn, or with each successive round of division. The population increases (Fig. 1). The time required for a complete fission cycle i.e. parent cell to two daughter cells is called the generation or doubling time. In bacteria, it is a doubling process in which each new fission cycle or generation increases the population by a factor of 2. So the parent stage consists of 2 cells, the second of 4, then 8, 16, 32, 64, 128, 256 and so on (Fig. 2). Thus the population will double, over and over again as long as the environment remains favorable for growth. The length of generation time is a measure of the growth rate of an organism. The average generation time in bacteria is 30-60 minutes under optimum conditions. Some species have very rapid growth rate and short generation time (5-10 minutes) and others have very slow growth rates and long generation times (measured in days). Staphylococcus aureus and Salmonella enteritidis, both causes of food poisoning, are examples of pathogens having relatively short doubling times of 20-30 minutes, which result in a few million cells from a few cells in a few hours in the infested food. The longest generation time occurs in species of Mycobacterium, particularly Mycobacterium leprae (the cause of leprosy) of 10-30 days as long as in some animals.

1. The Aflatoxin Molecule

Aflatoxins are chemically difuro-coumarin derivatives. Presently, 18 different types of aflatoxins have been identified with aflatoxin B₁, B₂, G₁, G₂, M₁ and M₂ being the most common. Of these Aflatoxin B₁ (AFB₁) and G₁ occur most frequently, with AFB₁ being the most potent. Physicochemical and biochemical characteristics of the AFB₁ molecule reveal two important sites for toxicological activity (Heathcote and Hibbert, 1978). The first site is the double bond in position 8,9 of the furofuran ring (Figure 1). The interactions of aflatoxin, DNA and proteins, which occur at this site alter the normal biochemical functions of these macromolecules and leads to deleterious effects at the cellular level.Monteiro et al. (1966) studied the in vitro interaction of groundnut proteins namely arachin and conarachins with AFB₁ molecule. The second reactive group is the lactone ring in the coumarin moiety (Lee et al., 1981). The lactone ring is easily hydrolyzed and is therefore vulnerable to degradation.

Carbohydrates (glucose) are the primary energy source for a body; when digested, glucose is the end product in human beings and simple stomach animals, but it yields volatile fatty acids in ruminants. Precise regulation of levels of blood sugars/glucose in the body is the net result of various processes like digestion, absorption, and metabolism operating under the interaction of various a) enzymes and b) hormones secreted by the different organs of the body. An abnormal secretion of any of the enzymes or hormones associated with the metabolism of carbohydrates disrupts the precise regulation of blood sugar, leading to various disorders.
14.1 Enzyme Deficiency and Disorders in Carbohydrate Metabolism
Usually, various enzymes are involved in the breakdown of carbohydrates, and if their secretion is insufficient, missing, or does not work correctly, it leads to different disorders.
I. Glycogen storage diseases (GSDs, glycogenosis, and dextrinosis)
Glucose is needed by the cells for the generation of energy and other cellular activities. If glucose happens to be in excess, it is stored as glycogen, mainly in the liver and muscles, for future needs. The stored glycogen can be converted back to glucose when the need arises. Many enzymes are related to this interconversion of glucose and glycogen. Deficiencies of one or more enzymes may lead to abnormal glycogen metabolism, leading to glycogen accumulation of normal or abnormal chemical structure in tissue, collectively called glycogen storage diseases (GSDs). Roman numerals identify different types of glycogen storage conditions. They are also classified under various categories like inherited metabolic diseases, autosomal recessive type, and X-linked type (VIII/IX type).

Introduction

The entire living organism from the smaller creatures viruses to the advanced human beings are composed of a set up of biochemical reactions which form the metabolism. These set of metabolic reactions are responsible for the life of organism. The rate of these reactions is a major concern for effective working of organism which is governed by biocatalyst. These biocatalysts are known as enzymes, which accelerates rate of biochemical reaction. These are not utilized in reaction. In 1877, Wilhelm Friedrich Kuhne (Kuhne, 1877) proposed the term enzyme which means ‘in yeast’ and is derived from the Greek word; inzume “leavened” or “in yeast”. At the molecular level of study it is observed that enzymes are proteins which are functional as tertiary and quaratanary structures. Enzymes have active site for the binding to substrate. The active site has two positions; binding and catalytic site (Ogeston, 1948). The former help to bind the substrate with the enzyme followed by the catalysis of reaction by the catalytic site.

Introduction

Billions of chemical reactions are happening inside human body and that too with lightning speed. However, the same reactions if carried out in laboratory, they take a very long time. The reasons behind it are the biocatalysts, also known as enzymes, which are synthesized by living cells. Chemically, they are proteins(except ribonucleic acids: RNA), colloidal in nature, thermo-labile in character and very specific in their action. For example, hydrolysis of proteins by a strong acid at 100°C takes a couple of days; but same proteins can be digested within couple of hours inside human body at 37°C. Similarly, carbonic anhydrase is used as a catalyst by living cells to transfer carbon-di-oxide from cells to blood. This process is 107 times quicker than the same process if occurs without the help of enzymes. Therefore, enzymes can be defined as the biomolecules or biocatalysts which can speed up the rate of the chemical reactions. The substance upon which an enzyme acts is called as substrate and the one which is produced as the result of enzyme-substrate reaction is known as product.

1.    The organic molecules which increase the rate of metabolic reactions are referred as

(a) Coenzymes

(b) Enzymes

(c) Reactants

(d) Apoenzymes

2.    Enzymes are

(a) Organic compounds produced by living organism

(b) Inorganic compounds

(c) Both (a) & (b)

(d) None of these

1. INTRODUCTION

Enzymes are proteins with highly specialized catalytic functions responsible for many essential biochemical reactions in microorganisms, plants, animals and human beings. Enzymes play an important role in many aspects of life since the dawn of civilization that have used enzymes for thousands of years without understanding what they were or how they work. Food processing through the use of biological agents/enzymes is historically a well-established approach. The earliest applications go back to 6000 BC or earlier, with the brewing of beer, bread baking, cheese and wine making. Whereas the first purposeful microbial oxidation dates back 2000 BC, with vinegar production. In the late 19^thcentury, Christian Hansen reported the use of rennet for cheese making and production of bacterial amylases was started at Takamine (latter became part of Genencor). Pectinases have been used for juice clarification in the 1930s and during World War II, invertase was also employed the production of invert sugar syrup in a process that pioneered the use of immobilized enzymes in the sugar industry. Still, the large-scale application of enzymes could only be really established in the 1960s, when the traditional acid hydrolysis of starch was replaced by an approach based in the use of amylases and amyloglucosidases (glucoamylases) and glucose (xylose) isomerase. From then onward, the trend for the design and implementation of processes and production of products by the use of enzymes has steadily increased.

Food and beverages and household care industries represent the largest application areas of enzymes, followed by animal feed, biofuels, textile and other technical industries. Recently, several new developments have taken place in the application of enzymes in fruit and vegetable processing. Fruits and vegetables are consumed as fresh or processed into different type of products. Commercial enzyme preparations are used as processing aids in fruit and vegetable processing to improve the process efficiency and product quality, because enzymes show activity on specific substrates under mild processing conditions. Therefore, there has been a striking growth in the enzyme market for applications in the fruit and vegetable industry.

Enzymes are biocatalysts that change the rate of reaction without being changed themselves. All (Most) enzymes are proteins but all proteins are not enzymes. Ribonuclease is the enzyme which is non- protein in nature.

Properties of Enzymes

The following equipment and types of machinery are generally used in the food processing plant which specifically deals with the processing of fruits and vegetables;
I. Machinery/Equipment for general purpose
1. Weighing Balance (Precision balance for chemical and heavy duty for fruits/raw material) 1-500mg, 1kg,10kg,100kg.
2. Cutting Knife (SS), coring knife, pitting knife, peeling knife
3. Abrasive peeler (carborundum crystal) for potato,carrot,ginger etc.,
4. Working Table with Stainless steel/Aluminium top
5. Buckets/ Water tubs/jugs (Plastic/Stainless Steel)
6. LPG/Diesel Bhatti/furnace/Stove
7. Utensils/Bhagona (Aluminium /Stainless steel); 10, 50,100 kg capacity
8. Spoon, ladle (heavy duty), grater,`
9. Belt conveyors

Introduction
With the dynamic change in the pace of human activity and changing life style, the demand for easy-to-prepare drinks is also increasing. Besides being consumed in the household, these drinks are also served in restaurants, clubs, airlines, railways etc. There has been an appreciable increase in the export of processed foods which includes squashes, cordials, and syrups. With the fast pace of growth in the urban sector and the increase in living standards of the Indian people reaching higher levels by the year, there is a good potential to develop this industry in the small-scale sector. To prepare fruits and vegetable juices at commercial level, several equipments are needed. Some of the important equipment required for processing of specific fruit and vegetables are discussed herein.
Pome Fruit and Small Fruit Processing
Generally, most pome fruit (e.g. Apple, Pear, Quince) and small stone fruit (e.g. Plum, Olive, Peach, Cherry) can be used for juice extraction. No peeling is needed. Small stone fruit such as apricots and plums might have to be destoned (pitted) depending on the grinding, extraction equipment selection. Cherries, although containing a pit, may be pressed with the pit intact. Breakage of the pit will release benzaldehyde, the familiar aroma of maraschino- type cherries.

Chocolate is a product that requires complex procedures to produce. The process involves harvesting coca, refining coca to cocoa beans, and shipping the cocoa beans to the manufacturing factory for cleaning, roasting, grinding , ref ining , conching , moulding and enrobing operations which are accomplished using wide range of machinery. A few have been discussed in this chapter.

1. Bean Roasters

When cocoa beans were first brought to Europe, the method of roasting was quite simple, often consisting of no more than metal trays suspended by chains over a fire, an ancient Middle Eastern technique for roasting coffee. The beans would be stirred by hand with a long stick or paddle until the roast was complete. Needless to day, this was very labor intensive and inefficient. Clearly, something more efficient was needed. The next development in roasting technology was not that far distant from roasters in use today. Metal cylinders or balls that could hold up to several pounds of cocoa beans would be suspended over the embers of a fire. A rod would run through the center and act as an axis upon which the roaster would turn. A hand crank on one end would allow the cylinder or ball to be turned while the beans were roasting. The result was a much more even roast than was before possible. Aspects of this technique remain in many of today’s roasters.

The establishment of a technology transfer office is an important and complex process for an organization. It needs careful planning to ensure its long-term sustainability. Before establishing a TTO, it is essential to evaluate whether institution’s core mission includes research commercialization, and if the volume and quality of its research output justify the need for an inhouse TTO. For institutions that may not meet all criteria, those institutions can collaborate or outsource for TTO services. It is also important to decide about its operational scope, funding, management, and for what kind of issues the office should develop a policy. There is no “right” way to set up a TTO, but successful TTO does require considering some key issues. This chapter outlines key steps and considerations for establishing a TTO. It also explains what physical infrastructures are needed, manpower, outlines the responsibilities and powers of TTOs.
2.1 Evaluating the need for a TTO
Establishing a TTO is an important step for any research focused organization. But before initiating a planning process for a new TTO, the organization must review its relevance by considering a few fundamental points:
Key considerations for institutions
1. Is institution’s mission focused on “research commercialization” If an institute’s primary mission is education, or it does not support research it might not be justified to create a TTO. For such institutions, it usually makes better sense to seek alternative solutions to the occasional technology transfer without the expense of a formal office. But institutions with strong research commercialization focus, a TTO has the ability to contribute meaningfully to the mission. The Association of University Technology Managers (AUTM), USA has identified following key motivations for initiating academic technology transfer:

The estimation of moisture in foods is one of the most important and most widely used measurements in the processing and testing of food products. It is used to determine the nutritive value of food, to express results of analytical determinations on a uniform basis, and to meet compositional standards or food laws. The level of moisture in different fruits and vegetables varies widely. Most fresh fruits contain more than 85-90% moisture in edible portions. Broad range of moisture content in common fruit, vegetables and their products as general guideline are given in Table 3.1.
Estimation of Moisture content in food products: Moisture content in foods can be estimated by following methods.
i. By Drying in an oven
ii. By distillation with an immiscible solvent
iii. By Chemical and physical methods (Infra-red heating method)

Introduction

In India, the ground water recharge in arid and semi-arid regions is very important particularly as most of the population residing in these regions depend on groundwater for drinking and irrigation purposes. In such scenarios, to alleviate the problems of drinking water, the collection and storage of rainwater to supplement existing water supply sources should be implemented. The utilization of rainwater is one of the best methods that can aid in sustainable urban development (Kim et al., 2005). Every drop of rainfall should be utilized to cater the demand of an ever increasing population as the present system of water supply may not be sufficient in future. The rain water collection & its utilization, seems to be the only option to satisfy the demand of arid and semi arid regions. In most cases, the rain water is the purest water source & contains very low impurities. It is necessary to adopt rainwater harvesting methods in places where the conventional water supply has failed to meet the peak period demand of the people for drinking water. Rain water harvesting is one of the most economical and practical methods to provide supplementary water supplies for drinking purpose.

Minor millets, that belong to members of the cereal grass family, are advantageous in areas where large crops like Bread wheat, Rice paddy, and maize are relatively ineffective because they have a wide range of genetic diversity and thrive in marginal environments. The varied soil types, temperatures, heat and light cycles, and rainfall patterns across India all support the cultivation of minor millets. Finger millet, barnyard millet, foxtail millet, proso millet, and many more types of minor millet are used in agriculture. The majority of those who depend on these millets for sustenance and income are small-scale indigenous farmers and dwellers of rainfed areas, mainly among impoverished tribal populations numbering in the millions. Coarse cereals,now a days known as Nutri cereals or nutraceutical flora and are no longer known as coarse cereals as a potential global answer to malnutrition and unrecognized hunger. Minor millets have long been an essential component of Indian tribal societies’ agricultural systems and practices. They have used little millets for both famine prevention and ethnomedicine since the beginning of time. This chapter focuses on how little millet could help people have access to food and nutrition security while reducing hunger and malnutrition.

Plant hormone ethylene is involved in a number of physiological activities within the plant system, ranging from seed germination to fruit development. Ethylene acts as a key player in accelerating fruit ripening by regulating the activities of different enzymes, and is responsible for shortening the shelf life and associated post-harvest losses during the storage of fruit crops. However, all fruit crops have different ethylene production capacities and vary in their response to ethylene. Hence, effective management of post-harvest ethylene is imperative for addressing the global challenge of reducing fruit losses after harvesting. In recent periods, numerous technologies and compounds have been developed for the suppression of ethylene and for enhancing in-situ oxidation of ethylene or inhibiting its production at a receptor level. Among these emerging techniques, the use of sachets, fumigating agents, catalysis and composite films embedded with nanoparticles has been found to be trending, but the use of some of compounds has been limited due to health risks or consumer unacceptance. However, most of these technologies are very costly and are not affordable for marginal farmers and developing nations. In order to address these issues, long term breeding approaches for shelf-life improvement, targeting the tfs, ERFs have been involved. This manuscript fills the knowledge gap by encompassing all the recent progress made in enhancing the shelf life of fruits by managing ethylene during storage.