eChapters

15.1 Fondant

The word fondant is said to come from the French verb fondre to dissolve. Confectionery fondants are normally made by boiling a sugar and glucose syrup in order to concentrate it before the mixture is cooled with beating to produce fine sucrose crystals. Some fondants used in baking are made by mixing icing sugar with a sucrose and glucose mixture. The icing sugar has a small particle size because it has been milled whereas the sucrose in a crystallised fondant has small crystals. It is possible to make a fondant using dextrose instead of sucrose. Crystalline dextrose has a positive heat of solution, i.e. heat is absorbed, and this produces a marked cooling effect which goes well with a peppermint flavour, but one which is not particularly attractive economically, but they can be in some other countries.

The art in producing high-boiled sweets with satisfactory shelf life is manufacturing boilings which contain the minimum amount of residual moisture and a satisfactory balance between cane or beet sugar, and glucose syrup or invert sugar syrup. The main physical change during the storage of high-boiled sweets is the formation of small crystals in the confection, usually referred to as graining, due to recrystallisation of sucrose. These spoil the appearance and cause an unpleasant roughness on the tongue.

For high-boiled sweets it is impossible, using the normal proportions of cane or beet sugar (sucrose) and glucose syrup, to obtain a product of 97% solids content, which is not supersaturated with respect to sucrose.

In practice, however, one-and-a-half parts of sugar (sucrose) to one part of forty-two DE glucose syrup will produce a high-boiled sweet stable against graining.

Chocolate is almost unique as a food in that it is solid at normal room temperatures yet melts easily within the mouth. This is because the main fat in it, which is called cocoa butter, is essentially solid at temperatures below 25^oC when it holds all the solid sugar and cocoa particles together. This fat is, however, almost entirely liquid at body temperature, enabling the particles to flow past one another, so the chocolate becomes a smooth liquid when it is heated in the mouth. Chocolate also has a sweet taste that is attractive to most people.

The first known cocoa plantations were established by the Maya in the lowlands of south Yucatan about 600 AD. Cocoa trees were being grown by the Aztecs of Mexico and the Incas of Peru when the Europeans discovered central America. The beans were highly prized and used as money as well as to produce a drink known as chocolatl. The beans were roasted in earthenware pots and crushed between stones, sometimes using decorated heated tables and mill stones, similar to those illustrated in Figure 1.1.

The development of a recipe for chocolate should be based on three criteria:

(i) The intended market or use;

(ii) The limitation being placed on material and production costs;

(iii) The desired quality.

The amount of fat present in the chocolate will affect the flow properties, and fat content must therefore be varied according to the intended use.

Some point to remember while manufacturing chocolate:

1. To maintain proper viscosity if fat content is increased then sugar content should also be increased.
2. Milk chocolate requires lower fat content than dark chocolate.
3. Addition of emulsifier like commercial lecithin can save upto 5% of added cocoa butter.

Cocoa butter, also called the obroma oil, is a pale-yellow, edible fat extracted from the cocoa bean. It is used to make chocolate, as well as some ointments, toiletries, and pharmaceuticals. Cocoa butter has a cocoa flavor and aroma. Its melting point is just below human body temperature. Cocoa butter that has been refined by neutralization with an alkaline solution and decoloured with for example bentonite, activated carbon etc. Subsequent deodorization can also be applied. The type of process used may affect the quality of the cocoa butter. For example, a too high deodorization temperature or a too severe alkalization can completely alter its setting (solidification) characteristics. High-quality raw materials are needed to make the best quality cocoa butter. The other important factors for high quality are the origin of the beans and the processing conditions used. Press cocoa butter, which is most commonly used in the chocolate industry, is only filtered and (partly) deodorized to obtain the desired flavour. Cocoa butter contains a high proportion of saturated fats as well as monounsaturated oleic acid, which typically occurs in each triglyceride.

Dried Cocoa Bean have chemical composition as: The shell (testa) represents 10-14% dry weight of the cocoa bean, while the kernel or cotyledon is made up of most of the remaining 86-90%. The cotyledon confers characteristic flavours and aromas of chocolate and is composed of two types of parenchyma storage cells.

Before processing, the quality ofbeans is evaluated for the following indicators:

1. Degree of fermentation
2. Moisture content (maximum 6%)
3. Number of defects
4. Number of broken beans
5. Bean count (number per 100 g)

Introduction

Botanical name of cocoa is Theobroma cacao and family is Malvaceae. The cocoa bean, also cacao bean or simply cocoa or cacao, is the dried and fully fermented fatty seed of Theobroma cacao, from which cocoa solids and cocoa butter are extracted. Cocoa flavour is the most distinct feature of chocolate, thus cocoa beans are the basis of chocolate. Dried cocoa beans are usually processed into cocoa butter, which contains fat between 56% and 58%, made up of a mixture of triglycerides. Cocoa butter with this composition is good for making chocolate and has favourable hardness and a melting point of body temperature. Theobroma cacao originated from the Jungle of the Amazon in Brazil. Theobroma cacao consists of two subspecies: the Cacao, a subspecies known as the Criollo, which can be found in Central and South America, and spharocarpum, which is also called theForastero. The Criollo has superior and fine flavour. The pods are red and the beans have no color. Forastero has a green pod

A glucose syrup is defined as ‘A purified and concentrated aqueous solution of nutritive saccharides derived from starch’, and having the following characteristics:

1. Dry matter of not less than 70%.
2. A dextrose equivalent (DE), expressed as d-glucose, of not less than 20% based on dry matter.
3. A sulphated ash content of not more than 1% on a dry basis.

Starch has a DE value of zero, whilst dextrose, the final end product of starch hydrolysis, has a DE value of 100. For the lay person, the term dextrose equivalent or DE can be regarded as an indication of how far the conversion process from starch to dextrose has gone. While technically DE is a measure of the total reducing sugars present in a glucose syrup.

These hydrolysates are dried conversion products available in a powdered form. Up to 20 DE they are normally referred to as malto-dextrins or hydrolised cereal solids. Above 20 DE they are more commonly termed spray dried glucose syrup solids.

Applications

Spray dried hydrolysates find application in a wide range of processed and convenience foods. Principally as filler/carrier and sweetness reducer.

They are ideally suited for blending into powdered formulations, and serve the following purposes.

As filler/carrier, they can

(1) Reduce loss of volume in contents on storage or in transit;

(2) Absorb fats and oils to retain free-flowing properties;

The first use of milk in a solid chocolate product is commonly attributed to Daniel Peter in 1875. Milk chocolate is the most popular type of chocolate, and milk ingredients are critical in delivering the highly desired properties and taste profile to consumers. Milk ingredients also have a significant effect on chocolate processing.

Milk is one of the most complex raw materials used by the food industry. A typical bovine whole milk has a solids content of about 13.5%, comprising about 3.4% protein, 4.6% fat, 4.7% lactose and 0.7% minerals.

Milk proteins can be classified as either caseins or whey proteins - typically found in milk

Release agents are used to grease equipment used for manufacturing certain types of sugar confectionery for easy removal of the sweet.

High-viscosity, purified mineral oil is most commonly used material suitable for all sweet manufacturing purposes. Mineral oil is neutral in taste and has little odour. It should be used carefully: there is a legal limit of 0 2% in the United Kingdom.

Acetylated mono-glycerides have excellent release properties. A number of alternatives based on vegetable oil are available, but the development of rancidity on the film surface on the sweets during storage is the major difficulty in the use of vegetable oil

Definition

‘Whipping agent’ are a wide variety of materials to describe their role in confectionery manufacture as a means of holding air introduced into a product, to produce a uniform dispersion of air cells within the confection leading to a lower specific weight and considerable modification to the texture.

Stable foams cannot be obtained by whipping high concentration sugar solutions without the presence of a ‘surface-active’ agent.

Many types of proteins have whipping properties and those used in the sweet industry are:

(a) Egg albumen, crystal powdered and spray dried;

(b) High Bloom gelatine and gelatine hydrolysates;

(c) Skimmed milk in spray dried form;

(d) Whey, or whey in a mixture with skimmed milk;

1.3 Dextrose

Sweets which include dextrose have different eating qualities to those made with sucrose and glucose syrup alone. Recipes should be balanced so that the sucrose to dextrose ratio achieves the required product texture.

The incorporation of dextrose will increase the likelihood that crystallization will occur either on store or during manufacture. Replacement usage levels for dextrose normally lie between 5% and 15% of the Sucrose content

2.1 Manufacturing Process of Sugar

There are a number of steps in producing raw sugar from cane

1. Sugarcane receiving and unloading (receive the cane at the factory and unload it from the transport vehicles)
2. Sugarcane preparation (cutting and shredding cane to prepare it for juice extraction)
3. Extraction of Sugarcane Juice (two technologies are in common use; milling or diffusion)
4. Juice clarification (remove suspended solids from

Confectionery is the art of making confections, which are food items that contains high quantity of sugar and carbohydrates.

Traditional confectionery goes back to ancient times, and continued to be eaten through the Middle Ages into the modern era.

Confections include sweet foods, sweetmeats, digestive aids that are sweet, elaborate creations, and something amusing and frivolous. Confectionery, delicacies or sweetmeats that have sugar as a principal ingredient, combined with coloring matter and flavoring and often with fruit or nuts.

Confections are low in micronutrients and protein but high in calories.

Food provides a sense of wellbeing and comfort and makes people feel good. In this world of a growing population, the need for affordable, safe and good quality food is rising constantly. On the other hand, there is growing awareness of customers who demand that food be produced and supplied hygienically in socially responsible and eco-friendly ways.

At present, food and nutrition security are the prime aspects which need to be addressed in an efficient way. It has been projected that by 2050 the global population will reach 9.2 billion which in turn enhances annual demand for agricultural products by 1.1 per cent from 2005 to 2050 (McKenzie and Williams 2015).

Nutraceutical is a broad term which represents any substance extracted from food sources with additional health benefits alongside the good nutritional value already present in them. The nutraceutical term was originated by Stephen De Felice in 1989.

Appealing packaging isthe current trend which influences consumer’s decision to purchase foods. These trends have evolved in the last four decades due to constant and drastic changes in the food packaging processes and mechanisms. These changes have shifted the focus of food packaging from the basic function of containment to extending shelf life.

All food legislation is predicated on the food law, which protects public health and consumers’ regarding food. The regulation is applied to stages beginning from producing the food, processing and finally distributing the food and feed, apart from domestic use by consumers.

Water is an essential component of all living things. Although once believed as a resource with a never-ending supply, it has now been understood that water is becoming increasingly scarce and therefore a proper management is necessary to keep a sustainable food production (Kannan & Anandhi, 2020). A continuous and safe supply of water is indispensable for the food industry where it has numerous applications along the agriculture and food production processes.

Food safety is a discipline ensuring safe consumption of food without any injuries to human health. It is multifaceted and influenced by various factors including, food processing, handling and practices, consumer demand and their knowledge, globalization of world food trade, changes in food consumption pattern (Chen et al., 2020).

A healthy life is ensured by having access to safe, nutritious and balanced food. World health organisation (WHO) ensures its contribution in developing food safety systems that are sustainable to reduce health risks from farm to consumer. Thus, safe food, its quality and consumer protection are the priorities of this organisation (FAO and WHO, 2021)

Liberalized economies and evolving businessstrategies push variousindustries to achieve a competitive edge both in the domestic and international markets. Food industry especially, works on the bedrock of quality of products and services in order to attract and retain customers. In this new world of economic order, customers can select from wide range of products and services that are available in the market.

Growing population has increased the demand on food supply. Providing safe and hygienic food to the population is an essential consideration. Food safety systems and tools need to be in place to assure safe food, until which the food businesses would not flourish or be able to build their reputation. Food safety systems and management tools are important as they assist food business organizations to build confidence in people regarding food safety.

Safe, wholesome and nutritious food is vital for sustenance, good health, food and nutritional security and augmentation of sustainable development of an individual. Also, safe food helps in the growth of the national economy and enhances the trade and tourism sector. Foods that are unsafe containing various kinds of microorganisms can cause chronic diseases or illnesses varying from diarrhea to cancer.

Food is essential for human survival. It provides the required energy and vital nutrients for sustainable growth and development. With the increase in population and awareness, the demand for nutritious, fresh and healthy food also increases. Although adequate food is produced in order to meet the increased demands, it fails to reach the consumers in need due to food Food Storage and Preservation Practices   35 wastage and spoilage occurring during various stages of harvesting, food production, storage and transportation. Gajanana et al., (2009) stated that there is a mammoth wastage of food post-harvest. It is estimated that 20 to 60 % of produce are wasted during and after post-harvest. 

History of food safety starts with knowledge about food hazards. The term “safe food” can be defined from different angles since the end users are highly heterogeneous. However, the accumulating data and day by day emerging information aboutfood borne diseaseslead to a boom in public awareness about food safety. Food safety can be defined as “The strategies and activities aimed to protect foods from biological, chemical, physical, and allergenic hazards that may occur during all stages of production, distribution, and consumption” (Paperella, 2020). According to the World Health Organization (WHO), unsafe food,which contains hazardousmicroorganisms or chemicals, causesmore than 200 ailments, ranging from diarrhoea to malignancies among which diarrhoea is common. 

Food safety and hygiene has been an age-old concern. However, today it has become an important aspect due to the rise in foodborne illnesses for the past few decades globally. It is estimated by WHO that annually 600 million suffer from foodborne diseases as a result of unsafe food consumption while 4,20,000 deaths are recorded globally.

Food processing sector in India has largest segment of bakery with more than 1.3 million tonnes of production from organized sector and 1.7 million tons from 1,000,000 unorganized sectors. India is second largest producer of biscuits globally. Our bakery industry is positioned third in generation of revenues among processed food sector.

Confectionery is an vital food item of great acceptance among wide range of population. It has been relished as a major food delicacy from ancient times. The term confectionery is describes a spectrum of sweet goods and takes on different meaning depending on the country in which it is used, for example in the United Kingdom the term applies to any sweet product including cakes. In the United States confectionery is candy and includes sugar confectionery and chocolate confectionery.

Confectionery fills an especially direct need; the sugar of agreeableness joined with exquisite flavors, smells and mouthfeel affects a basically transitory feeling of thriving and joy. Sugar confectionery has been made all through the long haul with extending headway and it remain alive in unlimited plans following a changed levels of agreeableness, flavors just as scents, feel, appearance and tastes

In the Modern era of globalisation, a wide variety of miscellaneous bakery products are available. It is hard to acknowledge all of them in this chapter due to the unlimited specialities of bakers across the world. The writing here in this chapter is limited to formulation & technology used for the production of buns, pizza base, chapatti, wafers, pretzels, crackers and muffins individually.

The history of cakes traces back to ancient times where Egyptians first practiced advanced baking skills. However, the modern-day cakes are said to have evolved in Europe around mid of 17th century. Today cake products and its derivatives are widely found all around the world. Cakes are sweet baked products rich in sugar, fat and egg with a tender bite and a pleasant flavour. They are basically protein foams, stabilized by gelatinized starch. Quality of cake depends on number of factors like selection of ingredients, balancing of recipe, optimum mixing and baking procedures. Good quality cakes are characterized by large volume, uniform crumb with fine cells and pore size.

The word biscuit drives from Danisbiscoctus which is the Latin word used for twice-cooked bread in Britain and refers to bread rusks made for sailors (ship biscuits) as long as the Middle Ages. Biscuits are thin, flat, baked and crisp items made comprising flour, sugar and fat as the key ingredients. These usually have a moisture content of less than 4% and have a long shelf life, maybe six months or more, when packed in moisture-proof containers. They may be a part of routine diets, sweets, luxury gifts, nutritional items, baby foods, pet foods, chocolates and creams added, etc. The appearance and eating qualities determine the appeal to consumers.

Bread is considered as one of the oldest processed foods to be known, traditionally prepared using wheat flour and water and baked on hot stones. The process of bread making involves hydration of protein and formation of gluten network ABSTRACT 70 Bakery and Confectionery Technology upon mixing, the evolution of carbon dioxide owing to the action of yeast on sugars and aeration of the mixture by incorporation of the gas followed by coagulation of the dough upon heating it in the oven. 

As the flow properties of liquids play such an essential role in our daily lives, whether intentionally or unintentionally, no one is truly an absolute beginner when it comes to rheology. Consumers not only focus on new and improved products but also consider the texture of the products e.g thick and creamy

Wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) is one of the major cereal consumed globally in various form as food. The powder of wheat flour is prepared by grinding of wheat seeds. Soft wheat flour has low gluten content that causes its crumbly texture. However, hard wheat flour has high gluten content of about 12-14% and has elastic toughness due to which it has good shape once its baked. Wheat flour is a basic ingredient in India’s famous flatbreads, and it can also be a key ingredient in addressing major health concerns in India.

The word “baked products” refers to a vast variety of foods, such as cakes, bread, cookies, pastries, and crackers, and a variety of other items, and it might be difficult to find a common thread that connects the members of this a varied group. The strongest common connection is that all of them include wheat flour in their recipes.

Bakery products have a long history of development. The process for the preparation of foods via dry heat treatments in an oven is defined as baking. Baking of foods can also be achieved by using hot ashes or on hot stones. Bakery products include biscuits, bread, cookies, rolls, cakes, pasteries, pies, rolls, doughnuts, etc. These products are mainly composed of raw materials such as wheat flour, water, yeast, salt, and various other ingredients. Bakery foods provide various nutrients that are beneficial for human health. Among bakery products, bread,biscuits and cakes are some of the popularly consumed items.

Millets are essential grains that help developing nations in Asia and Africa’s semi-arid tropics, particularly India, Nigeria, and Niger, achieve food and nutrition security.They are grown on soils that are usually too weak for any other crop to grow. They can withstand drought, minimal fertiliser treatment, and temperature swings better than other cereal crops, and their short growing season makes them exceptional. Millets are all-season crops that can be grown all year and provide several security benefits (food, feed, health, nutrition, livelihood, and the environment), making them the most cost-effective agricultural security crop. Sorghum (Great millet), Bajra (Pearl millet), small millets such as Korra (Foxtail millet), Ragi (Finger millet), Kodo millet, Proso millet, Little millet and Barnyard millet are all important millet crops grown in India.

Vegetable oils and fats play a very important role in our diet. They provide essential fatty acids which are precursors of important hormones such as prostaglandins. They control many physiological factors such as blood pressure, cholesterol and reproductive system [1]. Coconut oil is a popular vegetable oil obtained from kernel of fruit coconut (Cocos nucifera). It is liquid at room temperature and bland in taste. Coconut oil is extensively used in cooking purpose in coastal tropical regions although it has been used in abundance for its medicinal properties.

Cooking oil when heated there will be some changes like its colour, flavour, smoke formation etc. One change is the change in total polar compounds (TPC). TPC is used to measure the quality of oil. The TPC value increases with the reheating of oil, higher TPC value means the oil having high contain of peroxide and hydro peroxide. FSSAI fixed the value of TPC at 25%, beyond of this value the cooking oil can causes health issues like hypertension, atherosclerosis, Alzheimer’s disease , liver disease even liver cancer.

Snack foods have become an essential part of the diet throughout the World and they are prepared from natural ingredients or components to yield products with specified functional properties. Extrusion cooking technology getting more popularity over other traditional processing technologies because extrusion shows continuous efficient cooking, mixing and forming process.

Quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa Willd.) is a part of “Chenopodiaceae” family. Up to 250 species of Chenopodium have been identified to date. Quinoa is a South American grain that has been farmed in the Andes for thousands of years, particularly in Peru and Bolivia. It is considered as a sacred plant because of its abundance in protein and essential amino acids (Jancurova et al., 2009). Quinoa is distinguished by its excellent adaptability to a diverse variety of land and environmental variables. Both leaves as well as the grains are considered as the edible parts. However, the quinoa grains have been extensively studied and economically explored (Rocha, 2008).

Developing a nutraceutical or functional food is becoming mandatory as looking at the current nutritional status of the population over the world. Nutraceutical foods are proven to cause several health benefits to people. Hence the basic aim behind developing the nutraceutical chocolate bar was to fulfill the nutritional demands and provide some additional benefits to people. The product mainly contains two key ingredients that are, Drumstick (Morings oleifera) which has the most qualities to call a Superfood” and Quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa) which is referred to as “Mother of all grains”.

Cellulose is a homopolymer of β (1–4) glucose linkage. It is the most abundant polymer present on the surface of the earth, which is mainly produced by the vascular plants (Sharma et al., 2019; Dayal et al., 2013; Sheykhnazari et al., 2011). Cellulose obtained from higher vascular plants has been employed for making textile and papers.

Wood apple (Feronialimonia) commonly known as Bael in various Indian sub-continent languages is the most under-utilised fruit despite of its aromatic flavor, high nutritional components and important medicinal values. Reason may be due to challenge in harnessing the pulp from the fruit. It is considered under seasonal fruit but it has long duration of shelf-life as compared to other fruits.The physic-chemical characteristics revealed that it has high shell weight of 55.67% as compared to pulp weight of 43.77% (Devi et al. 2018).

Dehydration (or drying) is defined as ‘the application of heat under controlled conditions to remove the majority of the water normally present in a food. The main purpose of dehydration is to extend the shelf life of foods by a reduction in water activity. This inhibits microbial growth and enzyme activity, but the processing temperature is usually insufficient to cause their inactivation. Therefore any increase in moisture content during storage, for example due to faulty packaging, will result in rapid spoilage.

Abstract

The objectives of the study is to help to create self-employment and provide proper information for different conventional milk based products. Traditional dairy foods have always played a crucial role in preservation of precious milk nutrients and promotion of its use among masses. The demand for milk and milk products is increasing with increasing of world's population. To meet these needs, high-end technology is needed for emerging the capability of milk production and preserving it by producing high quality milk products. The dairy industry is highly localized owing to perishable nature of milk products. Approximately 50% of the total milk produced in India has been projected to be processed into a variety of conventional milk products, such as khoa, chhena, paneer, dahi, ghee, kalakand and a wide range of sweets in rural areas mostly by the rural citizens. Therefore, setting up a milk-based food production system and updating conventional technologies to manage milk-based products on a commercial scale is very important.