eChapters

Introduction

The art of fermentation process is developed as far back as thousand years ago without understanding the role of microorganism in it. It is believed that the process of fermentation originates in Indus valley during 7000 – 8000 BC. Archives of harappan civilization showed that different clay utensils were used for the fermented product and the agriculture and animal husbandry were fully developed during that period. It is evident from the artifacts of Egypt and middle east that the practice of fermentation was common in that part (Farnworth, 2003). The earliest practice of cheese making is originated from Falcate between Tigris and the Euphrates rivers in Iraq, 8000 years back. Later, Egyptians developed the use of yeast in wine and bread making during 4000 BC (Ross et al., 2002). Further, Sumarians prepared beer from fermented barley during 1750 BC. Earlier the fermenting process was an artisan way without any knowledge of microorganism. However, the main turning point was in 1608, when Antony Van Leeuwenhoek first established the use of a microscope and revealed the existence of microorganisms. Another, major finding was Pasteurization by Louis Pasteur in 1861 AD and this was the first report that documented the role of microorganism in fermentation. Later, there was a shift observed in the production of fermented food from local communities to large scale industry. The health effect of fermented food was first reported by Roman historian Pliny, who reported that fermented milk is beneficial for gastrointestinal complains. Further, a French paediatrician proved that Bifidobacteria in food prevents infants against infection (Grill et al., 1995).

1. Introduction

Now a days, foods are not intended to only satisfy hunger and to provide necessary nutrients but also to prevent nutrition-related diseases and improve physical and mental well-being of the consumers (Menrad, 2003). In this regard, functional foods play an important role. The concept of functional foods which has evolved as the role of food in the maintenance of health and well-being and in the prevention of disease, has received increased scientific and commercial interest is recent past. Growth of functional foods markets include increased consumer health awareness, increased popularity of healthy foods, search for food-based drug substitutes, self-medication approach promoted by busy lifestyles and rapidly developing health conscious markets. Functional foods can be defined as foods “that can beneficially affect one or more target functions in the body, beyond adequate nutritional effect, in a way relevant to an improved state of health and wellbeing and/or reduction of risk of disease” (Stanton et al., 2005).

14.1 Introduction
India is now the top producer of milk globally, accounting for 13.1% of the world’s total milk output. Fresh milk, if left at room temperature, will spoil within a few hours. To extend its shelf life, some of the fresh milk can be converted into fermented products. This fermentation process not only prolongs the product’s shelf life but also enhances its flavor and makes it easier to digest. Historical evidence suggests that people have been making fermented milk products since as far back as 10,000 B.C. Various strains of Lactobacilli have been cultivated in labs to create a diverse array of cultured milk products with unique flavors. Since as early as 10,000 B.C., milk has been utilized to produce fermented dairy items in different parts of the world. These fermented products offer benefits such as improved digestibility, distinctive tastes, added probiotics, vitamins, minerals, and extended shelf life. There is an enormous diversity of fermented dairy products globally, with each product’s characteristics influenced by the local strains used in the fermentation process.
14.2 Lassi
In India and Pakistan, lassi is a somewhat common beverage. It is produced by combining Indian spices with water or milk and curd or yogurt. Sweet lassi is made with sugar or fruits rather than spices; traditional lassi, sometimes called salted lassi, or just lassi, is a savory beverage occasionally seasoned with ground roasted cumin.

Introduction

Fresh fruit journey from the farm to the consumer’s table is an intricate process which needs a lot of attention. The way that the produce is harvested and handled is of supreme importance in relation to its quality shelf life and general market attractiveness. Improper handling practices during these critical stages can bring both quantitative and qualitative loses hence the perishable produce will lose its commercial value and appeal to the consumers (Kader, 2005). No doubt the significance of successful harvesting and post-harvest handling practices is crucial and has an impact on quality features and safety in case of fresh fruits. Poor management can cause physical assault ripening speed and more susceptibility to the growth of micro-organisms which makes the produce unsuitable for consumption or processing.

1. INTRODUCTION

Vegetables differ widely from field crops in their requirements for land preparation and cultural practices because of their differences in their morphologies, growth habit, and socio-economic values. In preparing land for vegetable production, ecological location, mode of cropping, season, crop disposition and the type of vegetables to be grown are taken into consideration.

Clearing: It is often necessary to remove the vegetation cover when a piece of land is to be used for vegetable production. The land clearing methods may involve removing the remains of previous crops and undergrowth, cutting back the woody shrubs and trees and burning them.

Levelling: When the site has been cleared, uneven land may have to be leveled. This facilitates the process of ploughing, harrowing ridging and layout of the site.

Land preparation and layout depend on

Ficus carica L, one of the oldest plant species in China, is abound in Shandong, Xinjiang, Jiangsu province. Fig belongs to the family Moraceae and genus Ficus. It is native to Middle East region (West Asia), but now it is widely distributed in Asia and North America.

Cultivars/Varieties: Depending upon the nature of flowers and the method of pollination there are four distinct classes of fig- i) Common fig or Adriatic fig ii) Capri fig, iii) Smyrna fig and iv) San Pedro fig. Kadota, Mission, Adriatic, Brown turkey, Celeste and Conadria are some important varieties of common fig.

Uses

Fig is consumed fresh or dried, preserved, candied or canned. Fresh figs are very delicious, wholesoms and nutritious and used as dessert or for making jam. Due to its highly perishable nature it is dried and marketed. The fruit fresh, or dried is valued for its laxative property. Dried and ground fig can be used as a substitute for coffee.

Filling converts freshly frozen ice cream into commercially marketable product formats while maintaining accurate portioning, appearance, hygiene, and structural quality. This chapter examines the major filling and forming systems used in industrial ice cream production. It covers cup, cone, moulded stick, extruded novelty, tub, and family-pack filling lines. The chapter explains equipment functions, filling principles, product handling, and operational considerations for different formats. Common filling defects and corrective measures are also discussed. Standard operating procedures for start-up, operation, and shutdown provide practical guidance for plant personnel. Effective filling operations are essential for achieving consistent weight, attractive presentation, packaging integrity, productivity, and efficient manufacturing performance.

a. Balance Sheets or Net worth Statement

Balance sheet is the list of assets and liabilities owned by a business. It helps to calculate the growth in net worth of the business by calculating the change in assets less the change in liabilities. They represent the financial foundation on which the business is built.

The term ‘balance sheet’ implies some sort of balance as part of the document. That balance represents the relationship between assets on one side, and liabilities on the other, and the basic accounting principle that assets always equal liabilities plus equity. Since it is simply a list of assets owned and debts owed, at a given time, with monetary values attached, we must understand the concepts of assets and liabilities.

Assets are resources owned by or owed to the business such as dairy, equipment, real estate, and notes receivable. Assets are those parts of the business that are owned or controlled. They include any property/resource owned by a person or business e.g. cash, land, buildings, dairy, farm equipment and dairy-related share. Assets are usually listed on the top or on the left hand side of the balance sheet. They are classified in following ways

A TTO needs a planned budget of five years to sustain it in the long term. This involves budgeting the infrastructure, manpower, research, and outreach programs. The budgetary needs of a TTO will be based on the size and scope of the TTO and the maturity of the parent institution it caters to. The initial years will be focused on capacity development, the appointment of experts, and the establishment of processes of intellectual property management. The mature TTO will generate income through the returns of the licensing agreements and the collaborative efforts with the industry. Nevertheless, external funding through grants and government schemes plays a vital part, particularly in the initial years. The planned budget ensures long-term stability and development of the TTO.
9.1 Budgetary heads
9.1.1 Operational expenditure
Operational expenditure refers to the ongoing costs incurred by a TTO to maintain its day-to-day operations. This includes the cost of maintaining the office, including rent, power and utility bills, computer and network infrastructure, patent management cost, and administration charges. The filing and legal charges also fall within this category. The overheads will be a heavy burden if not planned with finances properly. A TTO has to be provided with a properly planned operational budget that covers the daily operational expenses. The operational expenses help the office perform effectively, sustain the employees, and effectively manage IP. The operational expenses that the budget normally covers include:

    a.    General Principles and practices
    b.    Analyzing project appraisals and reports
    c.    Capital Expenditure decisions, reinvestment and payback
    d.    Assessing project profits.

a. Financing the dairy enterprise

Dairy rearing provides triple benefits of income, employment and nutritional security to the society and is important source of subsidiary income to small/marginal farmers and agricultural laborers. Finance is a prerequisite and of paramount importance for setting up of a dairy enterprise whether a dairy farming unit for milk production, sheep or goat unit/piggery unit, dairy/poultry processing unit etc. Decisions about credit are often most important judgments that people in the agricultural industry must make. These decisions often determine whether individuals operating in input, production, processing, and services based dairy enterprise would succeed in making profit.

1. Introduction Millets have gained popularity as staple foods worldwide, particularly in regions with hot and humid climates. These crops are often cultivated in marginal areas where major grains struggle to yield significant harvests (Thapliyal and Singh, 2015). One such millet is finger millet (Eleusine coracana), native to Ethiopia, and widely grown in Africa and India, where it is known by various names, including ragi and mandua (Table 1). In many developing countries, finger millet serves as a staple for a substantial portion of the population, especially those belonging to lower economic strata, providing essential nutrients (Chandra et al., 2016).

1.1 Introduction Millets were one of the first crops to be domesticated by mankind in Asia and Africa which later spread across the globe as critical food sources to the evolving civilizations. The earliest evidence of millets has been found in the Indus civilization around 3000 BC. Millets are a collective group of small-seeded annual grasses that are grown as grain crops, primarily on marginal land in dry areas of temperate, sub-tropical and tropical regions (FAO). However, due to the popularity of the cereal crops like wheat, rice and maize; millets have lost dominion and have become an underutilized crop in last few decades. Millets have the potential to be the crop of the future, as our major crops have reached yield plateau, also changing climate has introduced several new biotic and abiotic stresses to the major crops, so to feed the ever-growing population we need to shift towards other potential crops. India is the largest producer of millet as it contributes about 41% of the total millet production of the world (APEDA, 2020).

Introduction

Fermented meat and fish products have been consumed all over the world since times immemorial and represent one of the most important groups of food. Meat offers its own natural microflora. Hence a wide variety of products have been prepared since ancient times by varying the mixture of meat and salt as well as by the addition of spices and seasonings. Thus, fermented meat products characterize a diversity of flavors and textures and are receiving increased interest from consumers all over the world. Most of these products still depend mainly on local, traditional manufacturing processes since little scientific information is available; but scientific knowledge is very important for consistent production of high quality and safe products.

Meat is an essential part of non-vegetarian diet. It is liked for its unique taste and is a rich source of nutrients like good quality animal proteins, essential amino acids and fatty acids, minerals, trace elements and particularly B-complex vitamins (Singh et al., 2013). The growing concern of consumers regarding health and safety issues has led to the development of functional meat products that promote health and well-being, beyond their nutritional benefits (Grasso, et al., 2014; Tyopponen et al., 2003). This has driven researches in the meat processing sector to increase their efforts in producing such functional meat products, which have incorporated functional ingredients, reduced salt, nitrates/nitrites, cholesterol and fat and modified product fatty acid profiles (Zhang et al., 2010). Fermentation of meat produces a wide range of physical, biochemical and microbial changes in the muscle-based product

Takes clean, washed and edible fish-50-100 g for each method of cooking. And cook the fish according to the methods given table and record the characteristics of cooked fish.

Finfish and aquatic invertebrates are part of Fish Genetic Resources (FiGR) that has actual or potential value for culture and capture fisheries. Fish as a group, have the highest species diversity among all the vertebrate taxa. Out of 62,305 species of vertebrates recognized world over, 32,064 (~ 52%) are valid fish species; of which, the great majority (97%) are bony fishes, mainly teleosts; and the remaining (3%) are cartilaginous fishes (sharks & rays) and jawless fishes (lampreys and hagfishes) (Eschmeyer and Fricke, 2012). India is blessed with vast fishery resources, like exclusive economic zone (2.02 m sq. km), coast line (8,129 km), ponds and tanks (2.254 m ha), beels, ox-bow lakes and swamps (1.3 m ha), reservoirs (2.90 m ha), rivers and canals (173,287 km), brackish water (1.235 m ha) (Ayyappan et al., 2011). The country is fortunate to possess vast and varied fish genetic resources in different aquatic ecosystems and being home to 7.84% of global finfish diversity, with 3535 species of fish, of which 3035 are native species, representing 46 orders, 252 families and 1,018 genera. The 500 exotic fishes are also covered and majority of them are of ornamental fishes. Out of the 3035 native fishes, 1016 are freshwater, 113 are brackish water and 1906 are marine species and at least 258 species are of commercially important (NBFGR, 2016-17). India harbours a rich diversity of fishes and four out of 34 biodiversity hotspot areas of the world. The biodiversity hotspots i.e. the Western Ghats and North East India harbours maximum endemic freshwater fishes. The Western Ghats harboring about 306 finfishes out of which nearly 69% are endemic to the region (Gopalakrishnan and Ponniah, 2000). Likewise North East India, another biodiversity hotspot area, harbors about 240 fin fishes and nearly 40% are endemic to the region (Sarkar et al. 2012). In the past one and half decades more than 50 new species were described from these areas and more than 10 new species were described from the marine environment.

7.1 Introduction

Fisheries are emerging as one of the fastest growing food production system all-over the world. The potential for fisheries development world over and especially in India is highly promising in view of physical and biological resources available coupled with technological development. The demand for fish fishery products is ever increasing as the awareness of health benefits are being made available to public at large. The world fish production has not kept pace with demand which means less and less fish is available. Nevertheless, a large fraction of this valuable commodity is wasted due to deterioration after landing or consumer preference. An estimate by FAO [1] indicates nearly 20-25% of the total catches are wasted as postharvest loss. Better utilization of aquatic resources should therefore, aim primarily at reducing this enormous loss by improving preservation of fish and fishery products and upgrading the discarded low value fish to high value fishery products. The processing of fish into different types of products generates considerable waste. Commercially, fish is being processed into fillets, steaks, mince, canned products and a variety of ready-to-eat products. Fish processing plants contributes substantial wastes in the form of skins, bones, offal, exoskeletons from shrimps and nutrients in wash water from surimi plants.

Fish processing waste utilization is an important issue for the seafood industry both from a regulatory standpoint as well as one that has potential economic impacts. It is estimated that only 25-50% of the raw material is utilized for primary products (fillets, canned and stabilized mince production). The remaining 50-75% of the raw material is considered processing waste and is utilized for low-value products or disposed-off at sea. A large volume of solid waste is currently processed into fish meal, fish protein hydrolysates, and fertilizers. A small percentage is processed into higher valued items, such as, seafood flavourants, colourants, chitosan, enzymes, etc.

Introduction Aquaculture is one of the world’s fastest-growing food industries, providing a sustainable source of income for millions of people (Mohanty et al., 2018, Troell et al., 2014; FAO 2018). From the total world’s production around 33% of the all harvested fishes are not only utilized for human utilization for different reasons like size, species, quality, amount, non-accessibility of handling or transportation office. Today, waste generated from fish processing is a major source of pollution in the environment. Even when excellent grade fish is produced, only 50% of it is consumed by humans, with the remainder being discarded as waste. These wastes, which are dumped in an open environment without being treated, produces foul odour, which, as previously said, might be a reason of environmental pollution, water pollution and other municipal difficulties. Fish meal and oil made from low-grade fish and discarded fish parts not only solves many of these health and environmental issues, but also boosts the fishing and fish processing sectors’ overall revenue. With the rapid build-up in yearly extraction since 2000, global usage of natural resources has increased dramatically in recent years, reaching 92.1 billion tonnes and resulting in a 254% rise from 27 billion in the nineteenth century (Coppola et al., 2021). As a result, the research is stepping up its attempts to develop a circular bio-economy that aspires to increase the value of material flows while also achieving sustainable consumption and production. It is a new idea that is gaining traction for the goal of ensuring human quality of life through the effective and sustainable use of resources, energy, and infrastructure.

1. INTRODUCTION

Sensory science is the fundamental physiological and psychological underpinnings of sensory evaluation and includes our basic understanding of the mechanisms of taste and odour, kinesthetic and the various techniques of scaling and statistical analysis, whereas, sensory evaluation could unfold the application of this knowledge and the development of specific methods for the evaluation of the discriminative, descriptive and affective nature of products, in a problem-solving situation. When the Quantitative Descriptive Analysis (QDA) methodology was first described, it represented a decade of experimentation and study of the issue that were perceived at the time to be the impediments in solving “the problem of flavour characterization” Further, new developments and knowledge about sensory evaluation were beginning to have a positive effect on its acceptance by the food industry, but much more needed in be done if it is to contribute in a meaningful way. Today, it is indisputable that flavour is an important attribute affecting consumer acceptance of food and it is taste plus odour. The perception of taste is merely the detection of non-volatile tastants by the tongue while in other words, the perception of odour is the detection of odoriferous volatile aroma compounds by the olfactory nerves ending in the nose. The combination of all the possible flavour stimuli that could be encountered is as vast as the galaxy.

Introduction

How one can differentiates between sensory science and sensory evaluation? Perhaps the simplest way would be to think of sensory science as the fundamental physiological and psychological underpinnings of sensory evaluation. It could include our basic understandings of the mechanisms of taste and odour, kinesthetic and the various techniques of scaling and statistical analysis, whereas, sensory evaluation could designate the application of this knowledge and the development of specific methods for the evaluation of the discriminative, descriptive and affective nature of products, in a problem-solving situation. When the quantitative descriptive analysis (QDA) methodology was f irst described, it represented a decade of experimentation and study of the issue that were perceived at the time to be impediments to solving “the problem of flavour characterization” (Stone et al., 1974). As noted by Pangborn (1964), new developments and knowledge about sensory evaluation were beginning to have a positive effect on its acceptance by industry, but much more needed to be done if it was to contribute in a meaningful way. Today, it is indisputable that flavour is an important attribute affecting consumer acceptance of food. “Flavour is taste plus odour”. The perception of taste is merely the detection of non-volative tastants by the tongue. On the other word, the perception of odour is the detection of odoriferous volatile aroma compounds by the olfactory nerves ending in the nose. The combination of all possible flavour stimuli we could encounter is as vast as the galaxy. However, most of the attempts to define these experiences have historically been over simplified.

1. Flavor is a sensory phenomenon depending upon
   1. Taste, texture or mouthfeel
   2. Odour or aroma, appearance
   3. Temperature - sensation of heat or cold
   4. All of these
2. Flavours are minor constituents of foods, usually
   1. Nutritive
   2. Non - nutritive
   3. Energetic
   4. None of them

Flavour, colour, inclusions, ripples, and variegates play important roles in creating distinctive ice cream products and enhancing consumer appeal. This chapter examines different flavouring materials and colouring systems used in ice cream, together with chocolate, cocoa, fruits, nuts, cookies, sauces, and other inclusions. It explains the formulation and processing considerations associated with ripples, ribbons, variegates, and complex flavour systems. Proper ingredient compatibility, dosage, distribution, and processing are essential for maintaining product quality. The chapter also addresses common flavour defects and their possible causes. Together, these topics provide practical guidance for developing attractive, innovative, stable, and commercially successful flavoured ice cream products.

1. INTRODUCTION AND IMPORTANCE

Flower arrangement is a very old art. In India, the flowers have been earlier arranged in temples and during festivities. The first rules of ikebana were laid down in Japan more than a thousand years ago. Flowers have been widely used for interior decoration, but they were cut from the garden and simply massed into water-filled containers to brighten the home. The beauty of the display relied upon the blooms themselves rather than the aesthetic appeal of the design. Even at homes and venues of festivals/functions/on auspicious occasions, flowers are used in a big way in the form of garlands, wall hangings, and floor decorations. Flower arrangements grace table tops, window sills, corners, fire places, and so on to suit the occasion.

Flower arrangement may be defined as the art of organizing and grouping together plant materials (flowers, foliage, fruits, twigs etc) to achieve harmony of form, colour and texture, thereby adding cheer, life and beauty to the surroundings.

Various types of arrangements are chosen, as appropriate to the area and occasion. Medium sized ‘round’ arrangements are often provided at the guest relations executives’ desk in the lobby and on coffee tables in the lounges. In most five-star hotels, one can see huge, spectacular arrangements in the loggies. Table arrangements for conferences must be low so that guests may see over them. At informal banquets, large arrangements may be seen. At wedding banquets, wall arrangements using gerberas are very popular, now a days. On special occasions and festivals, a large amount of flowers is required for making up various types of arrangements. The extent to which flowers are used in hotel interiors depends on the degree of luxury provided, the number of special functions held.

The housekeeper is responsible for all flower arrangements and their placement. Simple arrangements such as a bud in a vase can be done. Alternatively, flower arrangements may be provided on contract, in which case the arrangements are brought in and taken away at agreed times and little or no floral work is carried out on the premises. Arrangements like running water, containers, buckets, vases, scissors and flower pots are important.

1. Introduction

Movement of fluids from one location to another is an important unit operation in food processing. Various types of systems are used to convey fluids based on their flow behaviour. Understanding fluid flow behaviour is therefore important for designing of fluid flow systems. The fundamental mechanism involved in fluid flow is the momentum transfer occurring in moving fluids during various unit operations (fluid flow, aeration, drying, fluidization, filtration, centrifugation, sedimentation, mixing, etc.). This chapter deals with the basic concepts of fluid flow, viscosity, pressure measurement, conservation of mass and energy, boundary layer, momentum and velocity profile of fluid flowing in a pipe, flow metering devices, and pumps.

Introduction

Drying is one of the oldest methods of preserving food. Drying and dehydration both can be defined as the process of removing moisture from the foods. It is a simultaneous heat and mass transfer process, wherein heating medium or internal heat generation helps in evaporation of free water molecules from the product. Drying means removal of moisture of food upto a predetermined level where as in dehydration, complete removal of moisture upto bone dry weight of food material. Dehydrated foods have less than 2.5 % moisture content (dry basis) where as dried foods have dry basis moisture content more than 2.5 %. Drying operation consumes energy from 0.38 to 0.63 GJ/ton of food grain. Removal of water from foods using thermal energy thus makes it an energy intensive process. Modes of heat Transfer in various Driers are given in Table 1.Developments in dryer and methods, dryer selection based on form of raw material and typical residence time for various dryer are are given in Table 2,3 and 4, respectively.

Abstract

Foam Mat Drying (FMD) is an economical alternative to drum, spray and freeze-drying for the production of food powders. The raw material is converted into stable foam by adding foaming agent through beating or whipping in presence or not of foam stabilizers, and dehydrated by different classical airflow and thermal means. A high-quality food powder attributes can be obtained by the proper selection of foaming method, foaming agents, foam stabilizers, time taken for foaming, suitable drying method and temperature. FMD can be used for large production of food powders because of its suitability for all types of food materials, rapid drying at lower temperature, retention of nutritive value and bioactive compounds, good reconstitution characteristics and flowability and cost-effective for producing powders.

In this chapter, basics of foam and its structure, mechanisms of foaming, types of foaming agents and stabilizers for the production of stable foam have been discussed. The influence of foaming agents, foaming properties, thickness of foam and drying temperature on the drying characteristics of mat are also studied. This chapter analyzes the application of foam drying process for different food materials, the microstructure and whole quality attributes of obtained powder, and the energy consumption and costs of FMD as well.

1. Introduction Fonio (Digitaria exilis), also known as acha, hungry millets, and fundi in various regions, is a minor and underutilized millet with exceptionally small size (H. Sartelet et al., 1996; Bello et al., 2020). This ancient crop native to West Africa is considered one of the oldest cultivated millets for ensuring food security. Figure 1 illustrates the components and structure of fonio millets. In recent times, fonio millet has garnered increased attention due to its remarkable nutritional and functional properties (Zhu, 2020). Being gluten-free, it is rich in nutrients such as carbohydrates, fat, fiber, vitamins, and minerals (Fe, Cl, K, Mg) as well as essential sulphur-containing amino acids like methionine and cysteine, which also possess phenolic properties (Barikmo et al., 2004; Zhu, 2020).

1.    Food Additives are

(a) Nutritive substances added to enhance flavour, texture or storage properties

(b) Non-Nutritive substances added to enhance flavour, texture or storage properties

(c) Both (a) and (b)

(d) Chemicals, added for preservation

2.    Which is an acceptable application of a food additive?

(a) As a fat replacer

(b) As an antioxidant

(c) As a food colorant

(d) All of these

Introduction

Since ancient times, addition of chemicals to food and food products has been done in order to to accomplish specific functions. Spices, smoke, vinegar, and alcohol were utilised to preserve foods more than 10,000 years ago. Usage of additives in food increased dramatically in the early 1900s, in tandem with advances in food chemistry and preservation. New, tasty, convenient, and healthy meals continue to be in high demand. As a result, by the early 1960s, over 2500 different types of additives were identified and utilized by developing countries in their diets. Basic foods are additive free, but as we increase the level of processing for conversion into an array of products, variety of additives are incorporated to increase the shelf life; to retain the nutritional value as well as to achieve higher standard of sensorial characteristics.

1. Introduction

Processed foods have become a way of life in the modern world. Manipulation of chemical and physical properties facilitated by modern food technology and followed by addition of food additives has created a plethora of innovative food products that offer consumers greater convenience, variety, safety, satiety and quality.
Food additives have been in use for centuries for preservation, for providing improved appearance or desired texture and flavour. Preservation of foods started with salting and smoking. The Egyptians used colours and flavours, Romans used saltpeter and in India, turmeric is being used. Similarly additives such as baking powder as a raising agent, thickeners for sauces and gravies and colours- synthetic as well as from natural sources are being used.
Today more than 2500 food additives have been in use mainly due to the spurt in the research activities in food science and technology that are aimed at providing different characteristic functions to foods. Out of these, about 1300 are the flavouring additives.

Importance of Food Additives

Food additives are chemicals, biochemical ingredients etc., which are added to food products for their technological benefits. These benefits may be to preserve the quality of food, to maintain and improve its appeal, to ensure its nutritional value and to provide innovations in new products with consumer appeal and satisfaction. Additives are also added to maintain uniform quality and to enhance quality parameters such as flavour, colour, texture etc. in large-scale production. They and their by-products ultimately become part of the food that is consumed and so they must be safe.

Additives may be direct additives, which are added deliberately to improve its sensory quality, nutritive value, stability, ease in processing and retention of quality during handling and retailing. There are also indirect additives, which are not added intentionally but get included into foods incidentally during handling, processing and packaging.

There are some guiding principles for the use of food additives. They should be justified for their technological effectiveness and purpose. They should be safe for use. There should be maximum adequate levels, absolutely necessary levels of usage and ADI (Acceptable Daily Intake) properly evaluated while considering its safety and permitted usage levels in foods. They should not be added with the intention of misleading consumers about quality. They should also not significantly affect adversely the nutritional quality of food products.

Introduction

Food additives are substances of natural or synthetic origin, which are added to foods to serve a certain technological or sensory function. They are utilized in the preparation and processing of almost all types of food in order to give favorable attributes to the food. Additives are the substances which are of little or no nutritive value but are added to food to enhance its flavour, appearance or other favourable quality. They are used in the processing or storage of foods especially in the developed countries includes antioxidants, food preservatives, colouring and flavouring agents etc. Food additives are substances added to food to preserve flavour or enhance its taste and appearance (Latiful Bari and Yeasmin 2018). Some additives have been used for centuries for example, preserving food by pickling with vinegar, salting, as with bacon, or using sulfur dioxide as in some wines. The use of food additives is not a modern-day invention; they have been used for centuries. The practice probably started when man first discovered that fire would cook and thereby preserve his meat. Later he realized that the addition of salt would preserve without cooking. Food preservation began when man first learned to safeguard food from one harvest to the next and by the salting and smoking of meat and fish. The Egyptians used colours and flavourings and the Romans used spices and colours for preservation and improving the appearance of foods. Thus, food additives have been used for centuries to enhance the variety of food products, to preserve, improve its taste and appearance, and provide a better mouth feel. Food additives afford us the convenience and enjoyment of a wide variety of appetizing, nutritious, fresh, and palatable food. Their quantities in food are small, yet their impact is great.

Food additive is any chemical substance that is added to food during preparation or storage. A food additive either becomes a part of the food or affects its characteristics for achieving a particular effect. For instance, substances that are used to enhance the appearance, texture, or to keep qualities of a food are considered food additives.

Food adulteration means anything adding or subtracting with food making it injurious to health. This adulteration may be done intentionally or unintentionally. Intentional adulteration is a criminal act and punishable offense. Or the process of lowering the nutritive value of food either by removing a vital component or by adding substances of inferior quality. Food Safety and Standards Act of India (FSSA) defined “adulterant” as any material which is or could be employed for making the food unsafe or sub-standard or mis-branded or containing extraneous matter”. According to Federal Food, Drug and Cosmetic Act (FFDCA), the primary food safety law administered by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA), food can be declared adulterated if:

1. a substance is added which is injurious to health
2. cheaper or inferior quality item added to food
3. any valuable constituent is extracted from main food article
4. quality of food is below the standards
5. any substance has been added to increase bulk or weight
6. to make it appear more valuable

Food adulteration is an unethical and often criminal malpractice. It is very common in countries of the South-East Asia region. It frequently occurs where informal food production and marketing services are predominant and enforcement of food regulation is weak. The prohibited substances are either added or used to partly or wholly substitute healthy ingredients. This creates the impression of freshness in old food artificially. Adulteration in food is usually done for financial gain. The high target is spices due to the demand and also their high price. Sometimes it can happen due to lack of proper hygienic conditions of processing, storage, transportation and marketing. The consumer is either cheated financially or becomes a victim of illness or disease. In case, the consumers take a lot of precautions at the time of purchase of such products it would help them in avoiding the purchase of such adulterated food. The whole spices: Dirt, dust, other seeds; chili powder: brick powder, salt powder or talc, powder. In ghee/butter: vegetable ghee, animal fat, mashed potato, sweet potato, etc. ; ice cream and beverages:saccharin; honey: jaggery, sugar syrup. Food contaminants are not added to the foods. They are present in foods as a result of the production (crop farming, animal husbandry and aquaculture), manufacture, processing, preparation, treatment, packing, packaging, transport or holding of such food or as a result of environmental contamination. Usually it includes the presence of harmful chemicals or microorganisms in food, which if consumed can cause several debilitating illnesses. Many times, unknowingly, the contamination may occur during the production, processing, storage and marketing.

Introduction

In the ancient era, adulteration was practiced as economical fraud like the addition of water to milk and stone to grains and pulses but nowadays it has become a global concern due to adverse health effects of adulterants on a human being. Words like substitution and admixture can help define adulteration. In general, adulteration is defined as either removal of valuable constituents from food or intentionally/ unintentionally addition of substandard quality material to degrade food quality. Food adulteration not only negatively affects the quality of food products but also results in numerous adverse health effects along with significant economic problems (Cheng et al., 2015).

Abstract

We are very fortunate to be born in a nation which is blessed with awesome decent variety of natural products, fruits, vegetables, cereals, pulses and so forth. The population of India expanded consistentlythat cause a genuine sustenance and shelter problem. The supply of food is not adequate to fulfill the demand of the consumers. This shortage of food is the root for adulteration of foodstuffs by the traders. Food adulteration is a procedure in which the nature of sustenance is brought down either by the addition of inferior quality material or by extraction of valuable ingredient. An adulterant is a chemical substance which should not be contained within other substances (food, beverages) for legal or other reasons. The addition of adulterants is called adulteration. Food is adulterated to increase the quantity and make more profit. The food is sucked of its nutrients and the place where the food is grown is often contaminated. For instance: milkis mixed with water. Vanaspati is utilized as an adulterant for ghee. Adulteration of food is unsafe as it may be toxic and causes serious health hazards to the consumer. To evade this issue government has passed an act which is known as preservation of Food Adulteration Act. It covers security from risks involved due to contamination of poisonous elements. Instead of government efforts the informed and aware consumers will have the capacity to dispense with this issue. So, here in the chapter adulterants their types, effect on human health, laws and control measurement were reviewed and discussed.

INTRODUCTION

Adulteration of food consists of substituting it wholly or in part by any cheaper or inferior substance or of removing any of its constituents, wholly or in part, which affects adversely the nature, substance or quality of the food. According to the Indian Prevention of Food Adulteration Act (PFA) 1954, any ingredient which, when present in food, is injurious to health is an adulterant. Thus, according to the PFA definition, many of the food contaminants discussed in the previous section are adulterants and come under the purview of food adulteration.

Adulteration of foods was practised even in ancient times. It was not a serious problem then because business was on a small scale and the transactions involved a large measure of personal accountability. Later, with the increased centralization of food processing and distribution, and corresponding decline in personal accountability, intentional adulteration of food increased. Even in the early nineteenth century, many adulterants were used in articles like pepper, essential oils, vinegar, beverages (coffee, tea, beer, wines), butter, bread, etc. In recent years adulteration of foods has become a serious problem the world over. In western countries there is a rising concern over the safety of the food supply and many remedial actions, both voluntary and enforced, have been taken.

1. Guidelines on Analytical Terminology

    1.    Accuracy : The closeness of agreement between a test result or measurement result and a reference value.

    2.    Analyte : The chemical substance sought or determined in a sample. This definition does not apply to molecular biological analytical methods.

    3.    Applicability : The analytes, matrices, and concentrations for which a method of analysis may be used satisfactorily.

    4.    Bias : The difference between the expectation of the test result or measurement result and the true value. In practice conventional quantity value can be substituted for true value.

    5.    The bias of a measuring instrument is normally estimated by averaging the error of indication over the appropriate number of repeated measurements. The error of indication is the: “indication of a measuring instrument minus a true value of the corresponding input quantity”.

    6.    Calibration : Operation that, under specified conditions, in a first step, establishes a relation between the values with measurement uncertainties provided by measurement standards and corresponding indications with associated measurement uncertainties and in a second step uses this information to establish a relation for obtaining a measurement result from an indication.

    7.    Certified reference material (CRM) : Reference material accompanied by documentation issued by an authoritative body and providing one or more specified property values with associated uncertainties and traceability, using valid procedures.

Food and Industrial Microbiology

    1.    Microbiology often has been defined as the study of organisms and agents too small to be seen clearly by the unaided eye—that is, the study of microorganisms

    2.    Two bacteria that are visible without a microscope, Thiomargarita and Epulopiscium.

    3.    Procaryotic cells [Greek pro, before, and karyon, nut or kernel; organism with a primordial nucleus] have a much simpler morphology than eucaryotic cells and lack a true membrane-delimited nucleus. All bacteria are procaryotic.

    4.    Eukaryotic cells [Greek eu, true, and karyon, nut or kernel] have a membrane- enclosed nucleus; they are more complex morphologically and are usually larger than procaryotes. Algae, fungi, protozoa, higher plants, and animals are eucaryotic.

    5.    The ordinary microscope is called a bright-field microscope because it forms a dark image against a brighter background

    1.    Laminar flow hood works on the principle of 
        a)    High-efficiency particulate air filter
        b)    High-energy particulate air filter
        c)     High-efficiency pressure air filter
        d)     None
    2.    Most of the organisms are killed
        a)    121°C for 5 min.    b)    15lb/in²
        c)     a & b    d)     None
    3.    Autoclaving is not recommended for
        a)    Oils    b)    Powders
        c)     Sensitive fluids    d)     All

1.    Evolutionary relationships between groups of organisms are determined using comparisons of

(a) Biochemical pathways

(b) Nucleotide sequences

(c) Structural features

(d) All of these

2.    The different bacterial species can be subdivided into

(a) Serovarieties

(b) Biovarietites

(c) Subspecies

(d) All of these

3.    Kingdom Prokaryotae include

(a) Bacteria

(b) Protozoa

(c) Fungi

(d) None of these

Introduction

India is one among the progressive countries in the world in maintaining food and nutrition database efficiently. The country has been in the fore front in signing the resolution on ‘Transforming the World: the agenda for Sustainable Development-2030’. India outstood among the developing countries in food self-sufficiency since seventies with low household hunger rates and low infant mortality rate. In the meanwhile, the country faced double burden of food and nutrition with inadequate dietary intake and under nutrition in one hand and overweight due to low physical activities on the other hand. Rapid increase in population with diminishing food production led to food insufficiency and malnutrition whereas, rapid economic growth and increasing mechanization led to the increasing prevalence of overweight and obesity. Both the under- and over nutrition are associated with health hazards, hence, use of normal body mass index (BMI)would be considered as an indicator for food security (FAO, 2013)

1. INTRODUCTION

It is hard to conceive which came first on earth, human being or food. If the human was born first, he or she needed food immediately to survive. Thereafter, the human beings continued to need food and continued to eat food throughout his or her life. Hence, the relationship between human being and food is permanent and the requirement of food for the human being to be alive is everlasting. Further, sources of food may survive in nature without human intervention but human being can not remain alive without food. This clearly signifies the permanent bondage of human being and food which is inseparable under any circumstances. ‘Thus, should we state that every human being necessarily needs food and should have right to food as soon as born.

In order to further strengthen this view, the governance which rules human beings should also be protective and enact laws to ensure food to each human being born in respective countries.

2. BACKGROUND

•   “Hunger is exclusion”, wrote de Castro (1963) a Brazilian anti-hunger advocate. “Exclusion from the land, from jobs, wages, income, life and citizenship. When a person gets to the point of not having anything to eat, it is because all the rest has been denied. This is a modern form of exile. It is death in life”.

•   Simply by being born, everyone has the right to food. A person doesn’t have to do anything to “deserve” it; the right to food is a birthright. But this does not entitle a person to sit back and ask for free food. People are responsible for doing all they can to realize their own right to food. Governments that are parties to the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights are responsible for ensuring that all those living within their borders have the means to do so, (FAO, 2007).

•   Broadly speaking, governments should create peaceful, stable, free and prosperous environments in which people can feed themselves in dignity. Even without a legal obligation to do so, countries have a moral obligation to ensure freedom from hunger (FAO, 2007).

Set 1

1. Match the followings:

1. (a & i), (b & ii), (c & iii), (d & vi)
2. (a & ii), (b & i), (c & iv), (d & iii)
3. (a & iii), (b & i), (c & iv), (d & ii)
4. (a & iv), (b & ii), (c & i), (d & iii)

Introduction

Fish symbolizes as prosperity and fertility of the region rather than for its food and nutritional security in many parts of the world. The abundant inland waters resources such as reservoirs, rivers and wetlands contribute to meet the food and nutritional security of a nation. The rich diversity of freshwater fish fauna supplements as a quality animal source protein, macro and micro nutrients for the health benefits of all age group of human population. Hence, the fishery activities such as fish catch and production enhancement from inland water resources are emphasized to scale up to meet the growing demand. The world fish production through inland capture fisheries has increased from 10.5 million tons in 2009 to 11.9 tons in 2014. The utilization of the existing vast inland resources through technical interventions would impact on food and nutritional security and livelihood of the fishers and rural masses of the developing countries.

Ice cream is not only an indulgent frozen dessert but also a food containing several nutrients derived from milk, cream, sugars, and other ingredients. This chapter examines ice cream from a nutritional and food-science perspective, focusing on its major nutritional components and energy contribution. It discusses milk fat, proteins, lactose, carbohydrates, minerals, vitamins, and the nutritional effects of formulation. The chapter also considers energy value, portion size, digestibility, and palatability. Understanding these factors helps explain why ice cream provides both nutritional and sensory value. The discussion provides a balanced foundation for evaluating ice cream as part of varied diets and developing products for different consumer requirements.

The major components of foods are the protein, carbohydrates and fat. The spoilage of foods containing fats includes the deterioration of the fatty components; the principal difficulties found in their preservation are in the development of rancidity. The spoilage of fats and oils has received much attention and substantial progress has been made in their preservation. One of the major causes of food deterioration is the chemical oxidation of unsaturated fatty acids in the lipids present in all foods. These fats are present in fat deposits and in cell membranes. End products of lipids oxidation, mainly aldehydes and ketones, contribute to the rancid off flavour and odours in the foods.

Fatty acids in food occur in the form of esters with the alcohol. The predominant esters are triacylglycerols accompanied by minor amounts of mono- and diacylglycerols and free fatty acids. The unsaturated bonds present in all fats and oils represent active sites that can react with oxygen. This reaction leads to formation of primary, secondary, and tertiary oxidation products that may make the fat or fat containing food unsuitable for consumption. Other consequences of oxidation include discolouration; changes in the texture, flavour and taste; and loss of nutritional value due to the destruction of essential fatty acids as well vitamins. Unsaturated fatty acids are subject to oxidation at their double bonds. In the presence of suitable catalysts, or in contact with lipooxidase enzymes, long chained unsaturated fatty acids may be fragmented to short chained fatty acids. The cleavage usually involves an intermediate peroxide formation. Many chemicals compounds aid in food preservation to protect the nutrients, flavour and texture, and storage stability of food stuff for longer period.

1. Introduction

Bamboo has historically been an integral part of human culture. Bamboo is a mystical plant representing symbol of strength, flexibility, tenacity, endurance and compromise. Throughout Asia, bamboo has for centuries been integral to religions, ceremonies, art, music and daily life. Bamboo provides numerous environmental benefits such as playing a critical role in the balance of oxygen/carbon dioxide in the atmosphere. Bamboo is the fastest growing canopy for the regreening of degraded areas and generates more oxygen than equivalent ultraviolet rays. It is an atmospheric and soil purifier. Its soil conservation properties create an effective watershed, stitching the soil together along fragile river banks, deforested areas, and in places prone to earthquakes and land slides. Its fast growing and high yield nature makes it a highly valued renewable resource. Its low cost and abundance call for its utilization to a full extent. 

SYNOPSIS

Food is an essential element without which human being cannot survive. We need it for our maintenance and growth everyday and through the longevity of our life. As we understand food, it is a bunch of essential elements which is essentially needed for the engine of human body to run non-stop. The understanding of food is much required by masses who consume it every day. The present paper attempts to describe the knowledge on food, feeling on food by consumers, prevailing food, hunger and malnutrition, healthy food and studies required on consumable foods.