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6.1 Strength of India
    ·    In India, pomegranate is cultivated over 1.31 lakh ha with a production of 13.46 lakh tonnes and a productivity of 10.27 t/ha. 
    ·    India is the largest producer of pomegranates in the world.
    ·    Pomegranate is currently ranked 10th in terms of fruit consumed annually in the world. India is the only country in the world where pomegranate is available throughout the year i.e. From January to December. It is cultivated in 3 seasons (Ambia bahar, Mrig bahar and hasth bahar) in Deccan plateau of India. 
    ·    India is endowed with wide agro climatic conditions that offer immense scope for cultivation of various kinds of fruit crops. This provides an excellent platform for the country to emerge as a leading producer of fruit crop. 

Technology transfer (TT) is entering a transformative phase shaped by globalization, digitization, and the growing role of start-ups in the innovation ecosystem. Traditional linear models of TT where inventions flowed from academic laboratories to industry through licensing are being replaced by dynamic, multi-directional, and collaborative frameworks. This chapter explores emerging trends that will define TT in the coming decades, including open innovation platforms, digital TT ecosystems powered by artificial intelligence (AI) and blockchain, the rise of entrepreneurial start-ups and spin-offs, internationalization of TT through cross-border collaborations, and sector-specific shifts driven by 5G, biotechnology, drones, and green energy. Drawing from global and Indian contexts, the chapter highlights how universities, governments, and industries can leverage these trends to build inclusive, resilient, and sustainable innovation ecosystems.
Three global shifts which will redefine TT
1. Digitization of knowledge: With AI, big data, and blockchain, knowledge and IP can be shared, tracked, and commercialized faster and more transparently.
2. Entrepreneurial ecosystems: Start-ups, incubators, and accelerators are replacing traditional firms as vehicles of commercialization, particularly in deep-tech and frontier technologies.
3. Globalization of innovation: Challenges such as pandemics, climate change, and food security require cross-border TT collaborations, making TT an instrument of both economic and geopolitical significance.

Introduction

The world does not function without mathematics. In our day-today life we come across many problems which are solved mathematically. The mathematical logical system follows “Yes” or “No”, “True” or “False”, “1” or “0” which are precise outputs for the precise inputs. There are several ambiguous or vague problems which cannot be given with accurate precise value with the conventional logical operators. Beyond this Boolean logic operator the logical system which mimics the human brain and gives precise solutions for the imprecise linguistic variables is the Fuzzy logic system. Fuzzy logic is a novel approach that intends to imitate human reasoning using calculations and operations with fuzzy systems and linguistic variables. The problems with vague imprecise data which we come across in our day today life cannot be solved by conventional binary logical method. The fuzzy logic solution spontaneously splits a complex problem into its component parts. This reduces the solution to its component parts. Compilers may re-assemble the code for effective execution on some target, but at the programmer level the problem is a number of simple tasks.

Fuzzy sets theory was introduced by Zadehin the year 1965, and it allows uncertain phenomena to be treated mathematically.

Galactometer: It is an instrument used for recording the specific gravity of the milk (Plate 306).

Galactose: It is an aldohexose sugar obtained by hydrolysis of lactose. Galactose is a monosaccharide and has the same chemical formula as glucose, i.e., C6 H12 O6 . It is similar to glucose in its structure, differing only in the position of one hydroxyl group. Due to this difference galactose possess different biochemical properties to glucose (Plate 307).

Galactosidase: An enzyme (actase) that hydrolyzes a galactoside. β-Galactosidase, commonly known as lactase, is an enzyme responsible to hydrolyze lactose (Plate 308).

Galactoside: A glycoside that yields galactose on hydrolysis. A galactoside is a glycoside containing galactose. The H of the OH group on carbon-1 of galactose is replaced by an organic moiety (Plate 309).

Galactosyl: A glycosyl radical C6 H11 O5 that is derived from galactose.

Fisheries as a source of food, livelihood and income is probably as old as human civilization. Millions of men and women across the world, especially the developing world, are dependent on the sector. While fish capture in the open seas has generally been a male preserve conditioned by various social, cultural and economic factors; women also have significant contributions for sustaining household nutritional and income security. They have been engaged in fishing in inshore coastal waters, inland water bodies like rivers and ponds; and in post harvest activities like pre-processing, processing, drying, salting, and allied activities like marketing, net making and mending etc. With increasing volumes of fish coming from culture fisheries the participation of men and women in these activities are also increasing. Suffice to say that both men and women contribute to the overall growth and development of the fisheries sector. However, often women and their contributions tend to be marginalized in the fisheries development debate.

Women’s roles in fisheries

In the marine fisheries sector, fishing is largely a male preserve. Women rarely venture into the sae, conditioned by cultural and social taboos rather than by skill and endurance. However, the support from women in managing the households and in taking up subsistence or other livelihood activities related to fisheries activities that may actually go into the household income security need to be acknowledged. Studies show that women comprise about 46% of the labour force in small-scale capture fisheries-related activities (FAO, World Bank, IFAD, 2008). It is as high as 73% in Nigeria to a low of 4% in Mozambique. At least 50 % of the workforce in inland fisheries and 60 % of those marketing fish are women in Asia and West Africa.

The term ‘gender’ was first used by Ann Oakley and others in 1970s to describe the characteristics of men and women which are socially determined in contrast to biological differences. The term ‘gender’ further explains, a neutral term meaning, either men or women or both are in a particular context. The goal is to improve the status of disadvantaged class and get rid of socially created and approved discriminations. The green revolution in India changed the face of agriculture but apparently it contributed to two general trends (FAO, 1996) where wealthy have benefited more from technological change in agriculture than the less well off and secondly men have benefited more than women. In general, it is true that the priorities are set by men and some women, who are unaware of gender issues, and that these are seldom considered unless the research is sociological. But even social research can be totally gender blind.

1. Proteins in solution absorb ultraviolet light with absorbance maxima at 280 and 200 nm. Amino acids with aromatic rings are the primary reason for the absorbance peak at 280 nm. Peptide bonds are primarily responsible for the peak at 200 nm.
2. Aromatic amino acids tyrosine and tryptophan give proteins their characteristic ultraviolet (UV) absorption at 280 nm, which is routinely used to estimate protein concentration. Phenylalanine and disulfide bonds also contribute to absorption at 280 nm, albeit slightly.

1.1. Introduction

The significance of milk as the most wholesome single food available in nature has never been debated. It is as ancient as mankind itself, as it is the substance created to feed the mammalian infant. All species of mammals, from the lowly rat to the mighty whale, produce milk for this purpose. Several centuries ago, perhaps as early as 6000-8000 BC, ancient man learned to domesticate species of animals for obtaining their milk for consumption. These included cows, buffalos, sheep, goats and camels, all of which are still used in various parts of the world for the production of milk for human use (Fig. 1.1 & 1.2).

Nature has made such a beautiful system that a fruit does not spoil unless its outer covering is removed and till it is there on the plant. For example banana will not spoil for long time if we do not remove its peel. Similar is the case with apple, guava, mango and many other fruits and vegetables. But as soon as the outer covering is removed the damage begins and the commodity is spoilt very soon.

Preservation is extending shelf life of fresh or processed food by using various methods and prevention or reduction of spoilage. Better the preservation, lesser the spoilage, more the spoilage poorer and inefficient is the preservation.

Therefore, in order to prevent or reduce the spoilage, we have to first identify and understand the causes of spoilage. There are chiefly 3 agencies that cause spoilage in fruits and vegetables i.e. (i) microorganisms, (ii) enzymes & chemical changes and (iii) man, animals, rodents, insects, etc. For effective preservation we have to check the growth and activity of these spoilage causing agencies. So, in order to prevent spoilage and preserve a perishable commodity for long time the following principles and methods are to be followed.

Abstract
Understanding genetic diversity is essential for achieving genetic improvement and conservation of grain legumes. These crops serve as important pulses grown and consumed all over the world, especially in Africa, South East Asia and America. Legumes serve as a good source of carbohydrates, oil, fibre and proteins. Grain legumes are a major source of food and nutrition globally. However, it has not been possible to enhance gain legume production to the required level, primarily due to the narrow genetic base of most of the legume crops, coupled with changing climatic conditions. Most grain legumes are lacking in desired plant ideotypes and resistance sources for various biotic and abiotic stresses. The genetic diversity conserved in gene banks globally is a major resource for crop breeding programs, but it
is utilized only marginally. Therefore, in order to broaden the genetic base of grain legume crops and enhance the genetic gains made in improvement programs, conventional approaches and modern scientific tools should be integrated in a phased and carefully judged manner. The first phase should focus on the search for desired traits and the infusion of diversity into the cultivated gene pool through use of landraces and CWRs. The second phase should focus on the utilization of advanced selection tools, such as genomics, high-throughput precision phenotyping, and artificial intelligence, to exploit the hidden potential of the available genetic diversity; and the third phase should involve technologies such as mutational breeding, genome editing, and transgenic technologies to improve, modify any novel or alien traits that are not available in the entire crop gene pool. We presume that enrichment of the genetic diversity of cultivated grain legume gene pools, along with simultaneous improvements in their yield and plant type with the aid of advanced scientific tools, will enhance grain legume crop yields to the required level.
Keywords: Crop improvement, Genetic diversity, Genome editing, Legume, Phenotyping

Abstract

The genetic improvement of crop plants is possible only through employing an appropriate breeding technique. The use of plant breeding technique depends on mode of pollination and reproduction of plant species e.g. selection and hybridization are used in sexually reproduced species, while clonal selection in asexually propagated plant species. The plant species/ varieties are usually derived through conventional techniques (vi z. introduction, selection, hybridization etc.), which are commonly used in various breeding programmes, while some modern techniques viz. transgenic breeding and marker assisted selection etc. are also available which are equally effective for improvement of all crop species. Various techniques applied for development of new varieties and hybrids are briefly described in this section.

Plant breeding is an art, science and technology of improving genetic make-up of crop plants in relation to their economic usefulness for mankind. Various techniques/methods of breeding used for genetic improvement of crop plants are: introduction, selection, hybridization, mutation, transgenic breeding etc.

Classification of Breeding Techniques: Plant breeding techniques are classified as conventional and modern breeding techniques.

Even after public concern the scientists feel that the GMO foods are quite safe. According to them the genetically-engineered crops are very safe to eat as much as the non-GE of the same crop. According to them the environment has improved by reducing the use of pesticides. GMO stands for genetically modified organism. Soy, corn, or other crops are very common as GM crops which are made by genetically engineered DNA. Many have come to the conclusion that GM foods are safe, healthy and sustainable. However, some people are against them. There are many benefits of GM crops like less water or pesticides to be used. Genetically engineered crops fight diseases to save the foods. At the same time the industries/ farmers that grow them are also benefitted. These foods have higher nutritional profiles, both in the US and abroad like corn which is one of the most prominent GMO foods. Soy is found in tofu, vegetarian products, soybean oil, soy flour and many other products. The other major crops taken for genetic modification are Papayas, Canola and Cotton. For dairy products a lot of work is being done on the genetic engineering of animals in a big way. This is going to be the most intractable environmental challenge of the 21^st Century. Presently, around 92% of the U. S. corn (GE), 94% of soybeans and 94% of cotton are genetically engineered.

GENETIC ENGINEERING

Genetic engineering is a means of improving the food supply even before harvest or slaughter by improving yields, increasing disease resistance, and enhancing the nutritional qualities of various foods. Broadly speaking, genetic engineering refers to any deliberate alteration of an organism’s DNA. Genetic engineering has been practiced for thousands of years, ever since humans began selectively breeding plants and animals to create more nutritious, better tasting foods. In the past two decades, genetic engineering has become increasingly powerful as scientific advances have enabled the direct alteration of genetic material. Genetic engineering is alternately called as ‘ recombinant DNA technology’ or ‘gene cloning’. Genes have been cut and pasted from one species to another, yielding, for example, disease- resistant squash and rice, frost-resistant potatoes and strawberries, and tomatoes that ripen-and therefore spoil-more slowly.

Genetically modified organism (GMO) is a microbe or more complex plant or animal in which DNA has been altered for a particular purpose such as manufacturing proteins, making improvement to the organism, research into the nature of genes and biological process, correcting genetic defects.

Millets are the staple food cropsacross the globe. The ability to thrive in harsh conditions established them as most suitable for current climate adversaries. The nutritional richness of millet reminded the need for adding them to our food basket.Despite possessing several desirable traits their cultivation is limited to a few pockets across the globe.Though significant progress has been achieved by conventional and transgenic breeding programs inmillets, there is a need for rapid improvement to meet the current needs.In order to accelerate the pace of breeding efforts, several molecular biology and biotechnology tools are being deployed by plant breeders. In the meantime, genome editing techniques like CRISPR, TALENS, ZFNs, Base and Prime editing have revolutionized the methods of genome engineering among which CRISPR has emerged as the most rapid, convenient and effective mechanism. The availability ofwhole genome sequence information, identified candidate genesfor various traits and successful transformation methods of millets promoted the application of CRISPR and resulted in the improvement of several traits. Initially, its application has been limited due to the restricted policies across the globe but the gradual change in the policies promoted genome editing across several parts of the globe. Thus, the application of genome editing for millet crop improvement can bring back those ancient grains to our food basket.

Diversity of gut microbial community

The human microbiota (the collection of microbes that live on and inside us) consists of about 100 trillion microbial cells that outnumber our ‘‘human’’ cells 10 to 1, and that provide a wide range of metabolic functions that we lack. It has been estimated that they encode 100-fold more unique genes than our own genome. Furthermore, the gut microbes contribute to energy harvest from food, and changes of gut microbiome may be associated with bowel diseases or obesity. To understand and exploit the impact of the gut microbes on human health and well-being it is necessary to decipher the content, diversity and functioning of the microbial gut community. If we consider ourselves as superior organisms encompassing these microbial symbionts, by far the majority of genes in the system are microbial. In this sense, completing the human genome also requires the characterization of the microbiome (the collection of genes in the microbiota).

Methods of counting viable and non-viable bacteria in gut

Before the advent of genome sequencing and genome-wide analysis method, our knowledge of molecular characteristics of diverse gut microbial population was extremely limited. To obtain an estimate of cultivability, microbial ecologists generally compare microscopic counts with total viable counts. The total viable count made on a nonselective agar based medium estimates the number of colony forming units (cfu) per gram of sample. The finding that total viable counts are typically lower than total microscopic counts was thought to be due to the number of dead cells. Indeed, dead bacteria in feces may constitute up to one third of the total bacterial community. However, recent nucleic acid based studies indicated that a majority of bacteria in a variety of ecosystems are different from those described in culture.

Introduction
Ghee is the pure clarified butter fat prepared chiefly from cream and/or desi butter (Makhan) to which no colouring matter is added.  Ghee manufacture has great significance and relevance to Indian masses and the dairy industry. Ghee is a very popular product since ancient time and has greater demand during festival and other ceremonial functions where use of ghee in food has been considered to delicacy due to its pleasing flavour and aroma. There are sufficient recorded evidence to prove that the manufacture of ghee originated from India and has been used extensively for religious and dietary purposes since Vedic times. Presently about 28% of total milk production is utilized for manufacture of about 1 million tones of ghee per annum. It is the traditional product with an established market. Cow ghee is golden yellow in colour, and is attributed unique therapeutic value.  The colour of buffalo ghee is greenish yellow due to presence of pigments called billirubin and billiverdin. Ghee is characterized by its pleasant, cooked and rich flavour. The preferred texture is of larger uniform size from grains having non-greasy consistency.

Ginger is used extensively as a spice in cuisines throughout the world. Ginger belongs to Zingiberaceae family and an English botanist William Roscoe (1753-1831) gave this plant the name Zingiber officinale in the year 1807. The name of the genus Zingiber derives from a Sanskrit word denoting “horn shaped” in reference to the protusions on the rhizomes (Ghosh et al., 2011). It is an oldest rhizome widely domesticated as a spice where the edible part is the swollen underground stem or rhizome. The Zingiberaceous plants have strong aromatic and medicinal properties and are characterized by their tuberous or non-tuberous rhizomes (Chen et al., 2008). Ginger is a medicinal plant that has been widely used all over the world, since antiquity, for a wide array of unrelated ailments including arthritis, cramps, rheumatism, sprains, sore throats, muscular aches, pains, constipation, vomiting, hypertension, indigestion, dementia, fever and infectious diseases (Ali et al., 2008). Ginger has direct anti-microbial activity and thus can be used in treatment of bacterial infections (Tan and Vanitha, 2004).

5.1. Introduction

Glass is one of the oldest packaging materials used for food. The use of glass as a packaging material dates back to 3000 BC where it was the first object to be used for containing and carrying food objects. It is made by cooling a heated fused mixture of silicates, lime and soda. It is an amorphous material in which all the constituents individually form an irregular network at microscopic level. It means it has failed to form a definite crystalline structure during cooling. Glass is defined as “amorphous, inorganic product of fusion that has been cooled to a rigid condition without crystallizing (ASTM, 2010)”. It has no definite melting point.

1. Key Forces Shaping Food Packaging • Changing Consumer Priorities • Modern consumers are increasingly choosing food packaging that aligns with values of health, convenience, and sustainability. The demand is growing for packaging options that are recyclable, biodegradable, or reusable. Consumers also expect transparency, with clean labels and QR codes providing details on ingredients and sourcing, which has become essential for building trust (Santeramo et al.,2022) • Environmental Sustainability • Sustainability remains a powerful influence on packaging innovation. Reducing single-use plastics, increasing recyclable options, and adopting circular economy principles are all priorities. Both consumers and businesses are actively seeking solutions that reduce environmental impact, such as renewable, compostable materials and designs that minimize waste ( Fao et al ., 2022)

Abstract
The rapid increase in global food demand, driven by fast population growth, has made it challenging to provide nutritionally balanced diets. Pulses offer a promising solution to these challenges by delivering significant nutritional and physiological benefits. Pulses such as chickpeas, green gram, peas, horse gram, beans, lentils, black gram, and others are excellent sources of protein (190-260 g kg−1), carbohydrates (600-630 g kg−1), dietary fibers, and bioactive compounds. The phytochemicals found in pulses, including flavonoids, phenolics, tannins, phytates, saponins, oxalates, peptides, and enzyme inhibitors, offer numerous health benefits. Pulses, essential to human diets for centuries, have seen historically low consumption levels due to underappreciation of their nutritional value. Recognizing their significance, the United Nations designated 10 February as World Pulses Day, and declared the year, 2016 as International Year of Pulses emphasizing their role in promoting healthy diets, sustainable food production, and food security. India is the largest producer of pulses in the world accounting for 25% of the global pulse production. The production and productivity of pulses have slightly decreased due to great emphasis to rice and wheat crops. To boost pulse production, India has implemented initiatives like the National Food Security Mission and policies to support farmers, including Minimum Support Prices (MSP) and welfare schemes integrating pulses. These efforts aim to enhance pulse cultivation, ensure food security, and improve farmer incomes, addressing the demand-supply gap and declining per capita availability of pulses.
Keywords: legumes, sustainable, oxalates, inhibitors, phytochemicals

Pineapple is a wonderful tropical fruit having exceptional juiciness, vibrant tropical flavour and immense health benefits. Pineapple contains considerable calcium, potassium, fibre, and vitamin C. It is low in fat and cholesterol. Vitamin C is the body’s primary water soluble antioxidant, against free radicals that attack and damage normal cells. It is also a good source of vitamin B1, vitamin B6, copper and dietary fibre. Pineapple is a digestive aid and a natural Anti-Inflammatory fruit. A group of sulfur-containing proteolytic (protein digesting) enzyme (bromelain) in pineapple aids digestion. Fresh pineapples are rich in bromelain used for tenderising meat. Bromelain has demonstrated significant anti-inflammatory effects, reducing swelling in inflammatory conditions such as acute sinusitis, sore throat, arthritis and gout and speedy recovery from injuries and surgery. Pineapple enzymes have been used with success to treat rheumatoid arthritis and to speed tissue repair as a result of injuries, diabetic ulcers and general surgery. Pineapple reduces blood clotting and helps remove plaque from arterial walls. Studies suggest that pineapple enzymes may improve circulation in those with narrowed arteries, such as angina sufferers. Pineapples are used to help cure bronchitis and throat infections. It is efficient in the treatment of arterioscleroses and anaemia. Pineapple is an excellent cerebral toner; it combats loss of memory, sadness and melancholy. Pineapple fruits are primarily used in three segments, namely, fresh fruit, canning and juice concentrate with characteristic requirements of size, shape, colour, aroma and flavour.

Introduction

It is an eminent actuality that the diets of end users are being advanced globally; however, the patterns of food procurement and food safety protocols diverge across countries. The fundamental rationale of the trend is that the consumer awareness with regard to food safety, quality and variety has been proliferated greatly. Looking back to the history of food industry, it is unquestionable that the past has a full frame of misfortune, indignity and many disastrous incidents. Moreover, the entire muddle was not always related with microorganisms; numerous of them were associated with environmental problems, technological advancements or certain alterations in production protocols and management.

Introduction

Globalization, as defined by the International Monetary Fund (IMF), refers to the increasing economic interdependence among nations, characterized by rising volumes and diversity of cross-border transactions in goods and services, international capital flows, and the more rapid dissemination of technology worldwide.

Key Characteristics of Globalization

1. Expansion opportunities for businesses globally.

2. Elimination of distinctions between domestic and international markets.

3. Freedom to buy and sell products and services across any country.

4. Production and distribution facilities are established based on economic feasibility at optimal locations worldwide, rather than national priorities.

5. Product planning and development are influenced by global market conditions.

6. Sourcing raw materials from across the globe to maximize efficiency.

7. Global strategies, organizational structures, cultures, and management practices.

8. Viewing the world as a unified market.

Plants, with the help of photosynthesis, convert simple molecules (like carbon dioxide and water) into more complex molecules (anabolism) through various chemical reactions. Animals synthesize more complex molecules (anabolism) from monomer units through multiple chemical reactions. Anabolism refers to a biosynthesis process involving the sequences of biochemical reactions by which complex molecules are formed in living cells from available monomer units. Anabolic processes include the biosynthesis of complex biomolecules like carbohydrates, proteins, and lipids. The anabolic processes require energy from high-energy bond compounds like ATP.
The anabolic processes related to the biosynthesis of carbohydrates include
(1) Gluconeogenesis and
(2) Glycogenesis
11.1 Gluconeogenesis
Gluconeogenesis is the synthesis of new glucose molecules from noncarbohydrate molecules. The non-carbohydrate molecules that are used for gluconeogenesis are derived from glycolysis, lipolysis, and proteolysis. Examples are pyruvate, lactate, glycerol, and glucogenic amino acids. The liver and kidneys are the preferred organs for the gluconeogenesis process. It also occurs to some extent in the brain. Blood glucose levels are maintained at physiological concentrations through the process of gluconeogenesis in humans and ruminants. The blood glucose drops below normal levels during various conditions like fasting, starvation, pregnancy, lactation, fever, and low carbohydrate diets.

A glucose syrup is defined as ‘A purified and concentrated aqueous solution of nutritive saccharides derived from starch’, and having the following characteristics:

1. Dry matter of not less than 70%.
2. A dextrose equivalent (DE), expressed as d-glucose, of not less than 20% based on dry matter.
3. A sulphated ash content of not more than 1% on a dry basis.

Starch has a DE value of zero, whilst dextrose, the final end product of starch hydrolysis, has a DE value of 100. For the lay person, the term dextrose equivalent or DE can be regarded as an indication of how far the conversion process from starch to dextrose has gone. While technically DE is a measure of the total reducing sugars present in a glucose syrup.

Introduction

Wheat is the most important cereal crop to the human kind. It is the main source of energy and nutrition in human diet. Wheat is consumed in the form of large number of end products as chapati, bread, biscuit, cakes, pretzels, noodles and pasta products. Millions of people are involved in milling, baking and pasta products industry with huge turnover per annum. However, each end-use product of wheat has it’s own specific requirement for example basically hard wheats along with strong gluten and high protein content are used for bead making. Soft wheat with weak gluten and low protein content are required for biscuit making Souza et al. (1994). Durum (tetraploid) wheat is used for pasta products as macaroni, vermicelli and spheghatti and Dicoccum for therapeautic purposes. Often chemical improvers are used to improve the dough properties for these products. Most of these chemicals have been banned because of their toxic effects. Therefore, only alternative is to develop varieties suited to meet the requirements of these end-use products. This needs better understanding of molecular basis of grain quality to accelerate breeding for producing wheat varieties for each end-use product separately. Storage proteins are the major component of grain which determines end-product quality. In this chapter detailed structure, genetics and functionality of gluten proteins are described.

Glycogenesis helps to maintain blood glucose, as it is a primary source of energy for every cell. An inadequate supply of glucose to the body may lead to the failure of the vital organs. Glucose, when in excess, is synthesized into glycogen and stored (glycogenesis), mainly in the liver and muscles (including the uterus). It is also found in other tissues, such as the kidney, brain, heart, and adipose tissues. The stored liver glycogen is broken down (glycogenolysis) into blood glucose when needed. Still, the glycogen stored in muscle is broken down to glucose 1-phosphate and converted to blood glucose later. Either the synthesis or breakdown pathway is primarily active at a time in tissues. Glycogen synthesis and its breakdown are not reversible processes.
The percentage of glycogen stored in skeletal muscles is less ( 1% to 2%) than in the liver (10%). Still, the total quantity of glycogen is greater in muscles due to their greater mass than an animal’s total liver mass. Muscle mass, on average, ranges from 40 to 45 % of body weight for the most mature mammals.
Glycogen synthesis (glycogenesis) is an anabolic process forming a branched homopolysaccharide made of several chains of alpha D-glucose units linked by α-1,4 glycosidic bonds in a linear chain and nearly every ten glucose residues; the chain branches off via α-1,6 glycosidic linkages. The α-glycosidic bonds give rise to a helical polymer structure. The number of glucose units in a single glycogen molecule varies (1,700 to -600,000 units). The glycogen granules are formed on the glycogenin protein in the center, so it acts as a primer, and their number determines the total number of glycogen particles.

Glycogen breakdown is known as glycogenolysis. This breakdown occurs in the cytoplasm of cells of the organs, wherein glycogen is stored. The end product of glycolysis is glucose in the liver, which is glucose-1-phosphate in skeletal muscles.
Glycogen is a polysaccharide synthesized from glucose monomers. Glycogen is stored in the cell instead of glucose because glucose requires more water, whereas glycogen can be stored with much less water. Most of the stored glycogen is in the liver (5% of body weight) and muscle (1 to 2 % of body weight). Muscle and liver glycogen undergo glycolysis for different purposes. Muscle glycogen provides energy for muscular activity, whereas liver glycogen helps to maintain the blood glucose level.
Glycogen contains many glucose residues (up to 120,000) linked by alpha 1-4 glycosidic bonds, forming a straight chain. Glycogen has branches at alpha 1-6 glycosidic bonds at every ten glucose residues. At the reducing end, the carbon one of glucose is free, whereas it is not accessible in the case of non-reducing ends.

Glycolysis involves a series of reactions to extract energy from glucose to
release two molecules with three carbons called pyruvate. The process is not
dependent on oxygen but can occur under aerobic and anaerobic conditions,
releasing different end products. Under aerobic conditions, the pyruvate formed
is then oxidized in the mitochondria to CO2 and H2O. The energy released in
glycolysis is in the form of ATP (High Energy Bond). All the reaction steps
occur in the cytoplasm, as it is the extramitochondrial pathway. In anaerobic
conditions and the absence of mitochondria (RBC), the end product of
glycolysis is lactic acid.
The net reaction of Glycolysis (anaerobic) may be summarized as under
Glucose + 2ADP + 2Pi → 2 Lactate + 2ATP
7.1 Steps in EMP Cycle or Glycolytic Pathway
Table 7.1: Steps and enzymes of glycolysis or EMP cycle.

Introduction

Meat derived from animals are subjected to various contaminations from number of sources. The animal itself is a major contributor of both pathogenic and spoilage organisms. Further contamination may be introduced from water used, equipment used for product preparation, from the meat handlers and the surrounding environment. Microbiological problems such as food poisoning or spoilage may arise when the desired effect is not achieved and is usually due to errors in the handling or processing procedures. The detection and rapid correction of such errors and their future prevention is a major objective of any quality control system.

In traditional approach to meat and meat product quality control system, only the samples of the final product were analyzed by laboratory test to check for compliance with specifications. However, the responsibility for control of hazards rests with individuals involved in all stages from farm to ultimate consumer. And the control of hazards at each stages of food chain may be achieved by Hazard Analysis Critical control point (HACCP). Hazard analysis critical control point is an internationally recognized system that helps to ensure the manufacture of safe food products. HACCP is not a zero risk system but rather a system designated to minimize the risk of food safety hazards. HACCP concept is a systematic and rational approach Firstly by consideration of the hazards i.e., microorganisms or their toxins, that need to be controlled in a specific operation by structured hazard analysis and secondly on the identification of the most effective means of controlling the identified hazards. This system, by focusing attention on the factor that directly affects the microbiological safety and quality of meat foods, eliminates wasteful use of resources and superfluous consideration. As a consequence, the cost/benefit relationships are more favorable. The system is applicable at all levels of meat food chain from farm production through processing, transporting, merchandising and ultimate use in the meat food service establishment or at home. Ensuring food safety and quality is the responsibility of all links in the food chain. Now a day’s food consumers are very much health conscious and they want their food to be safe and of good quality. As meat being highly perishable and high risk food product, it is very much imperative on the part of meat and meat products producers and exporters to produce safe and quality meat to stand in the competitive world and further hygienic meat processing is important not only to provide safe and wholesome meat but to provide a good public image and to increase consumer demand.

31.1 Introduction
A fundamental element of quality assurance is good manufacturing practice (GMP), which ensures that goods are consistently produced and regulated according to the quality standards suitable for their intended application and as outlined by the marketing license. The primary objective of GMP is to mitigate risks in pharmaceutical manufacture, which may be categorised into two main types: erroneous labelling and cross-contamination/mix-ups. Primarily, manufacturers must guarantee that their goods are safe, effective, and of adequate quality; hence, risk assessment has become a crucial component of WHO quality assurance guidelines.
31.2 Implementation of HACCP
31.2.1 HACCP Preamble and Definitions Preamble
1. The introductory portion of this publication delineates the concepts of the Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Point (HACCP) system as endorsed by the Codex Alimentarius Commission. This section provides broad recommendations for system application, recognising that implementation specifics may differ according to the food operation’s unique conditions.
2. The HACCP system, grounded in scientific principles and methodical methodology, identifies specific dangers and implements control measures to assure food safety. It functions as an instrument for hazard evaluation and the implementation of control systems aimed at prevention rather than predominantly on final product testing. The HACCP system is flexible, allowing for modifications in equipment design, processing methods, or technology innovations.
3. HACCP is relevant across the whole food chain, from initial production to ultimate consumption, and its use must be guided by scientific knowledge on dangers to human health. In addition to improving food safety, the use of HACCP can provide other substantial advantages. Furthermore, the use of HACCP systems can streamline regulatory inspections and enhance international trade by increasing confidence in food safety.

During the latter part of the 20^th century, rapid economic development in most countries coupled with population growth propelled the inevitable demand for more food and manufactured goods. However, requirement of more food is placing unprecedented demands on agriculture and natural resources. Humans have made agriculture the dominant environmental threat by clearing forests, cultivating marginal lands, and intensifying farming in sensitive landscapes and watersheds. Most of the land use systems in the tropics are characterized by a rapid decline in productivity and high rates of soil and environmental degradation which need to be addressed in a proper way.

Agriculture has changed radically since the end of World War II. Productivity of most crops has scaled to new levels because of the adoption of new technologies, machines, increased chemical inputs, and government policies. However, continuing agricultural production without harming the environment is a challenge, which must be tackled along with economic growth. Some of the environmental issues related to agriculture are top soil loss, groundwater contamination, air pollution, greenhouse gas emission, decline of family farms neglect of the working conditions of farm labourers, new threats to human health and safety by the spread of new pathogens, economic concentration in food and agricultural industries, and disintegration of rural communities (Brodt et al, 2011). This situation prompted world nations, political leaders, scientists and planners to pay more attention to the concept of sustainable development. As a concept, sustainability is concerned with the continuity of environmental economic, and social aspects of human society.

Introduction

Government initiatives aimed at supporting small-scale enterprises and fostering women’s entrepreneurship are crucial for driving economic development, job creation, and social empowerment. Small-scale enterprises, including micro, small, and medium enterprises (MSMEs), play a vital role in the economy by contributing to employment, innovation, and poverty reduction. Similarly, women entrepreneurship offers significant potential for promoting inclusive growth, tapping into underutilized talent, and advancing gender equality in business leadership.

Small-scale enterprises often face challenges like limited access to funding, poor infrastructure, regulatory barriers, and market limitations. Women entrepreneurs, on the other hand, encounter additional obstacles such as socio cultural norms, limited access to resources, and gender biases in the business world. To address these issues, governments globally have introduced policies and initiatives aimed at supporting small enterprises and encouraging women’s participation in entrepreneurship.

Introduction

Small and medium-sized industrial units, or small scale industrial (SSI) units, are generally referred to as SMEs, according to the Ministry of Micro, Small and Medium Enterprises. The MSMED Act of 2006, which was updated in 2020, serves as the foundation for the definition of SMEs in India.

• Micro manufacturing and services units: Up to Rs. 1 crore in investments and up to Rs. 5 crore in revenue.

• Small manufacturing and services units: Up to Rs. 10 crore in investments and up to Rs. 50 crore in revenue.

• Medium manufacturing and services units: Up to Rs. 50 crore in investments and up to Rs. 250 crore in revenue.

Small and Medium-sized enterprises (SMEs) constitute the backbone of the global economy. SMEs not only provide major contributions to national GDPs, but they also play an important role in job creation, innovation, and regional development. In India, SMEs account for about 30% of the country’s GDP and employ over 110 million people, making them an important part of the economic structure.(FICCI,2023).

The Government of India has accorded ‘high priority’ status to the food processing industry. The Ministry of Food Processing Industries (MOFPI) has been set up as a nodal agency for formulation and implementation of the policies and plans for the food processing industries.

With an overall objective of positioning India as the ‘Food Basket’ to the world, several initiatives have been undertaken with the objective of promoting investments, innovation and bringing best practices. This vision is in line with the ‘Make in India’ initiative of the Government (CII, 2019).

5.1. Policy Interventions (MOFPI, 2019)

5.1.1. Infrastructure Development

Fragmented, inadequate, and inefficient infrastructure along the supply chain has been identified as one of major factor inhibiting growth of food processing sector. As adequate investment for infrastructure has not been forthcoming from private sector, government will continue to assist, participate and incentivize creation of supply chain infrastructure for food processing sector.

1. INTRODUCTION

Grading and packing of fruits ensure the safe transportation from the farm to the storage and consumer centre, while reducing the damage during transportation. The properly graded fruits should be packed in such a way that they do not collide with each other during transportation. Throughout the entire handling system, packaging can be both an aid and hindrance to obtaining maximum storage life and quality. Before the fruit is packed in a suitable container/package it is graded according to the standard grades accepted in the market. Packaging is one of the important components after grading during the handling of fruits. Packaging is meant to protect the commodity by immobilizing and cushioning it, but temperature management can be made more difficult if packing material block ventilation holes. Packing material can act as vapour barriers and helps in maintaining higher relative humidity within the package. Packaging material such as trays, cups, wraps, liners and pads may be added to help immobilize the produce. A wide variety of containers such as wooden boxes, plastic crates, corrugated fiberboard boxes are important package used in the transportation and distribution of fruits in most of the developing countries.

Introduction

Fruit and vegetable development starts with formation of an edible part fruit setting, seedling emergence, tuber development and ends with loss of edible character, or spoilage through physiological deterioration, development of fibrous character or spoilage through microbiological intervention . The state of maturity of a fresh horticultural commodity is therefore is a continuum process along the development scale. The term mature implies that point in the development scale when the horticultural commodity in the state that is ready to use (consume, process, store). For the packing house, maturity means suitability for storage followed by sufficient shelf life to assure profitable supply to markets. On the other hand, the retail consumer may value colour, flavour, or textural attributes. This implies that maturity and an appropriate compromise must be achieved through the marketing process.

Quality, on the other hand, relates to the degree of the satisfaction that the consumer or customer is likely to obtain through the use of mature commodity. Maturity and quality are interrelated with market expectations or requirements. These expectations or requirements are expressed through regulations or guidelines of grower groups or through legislative authority expressed as quality standards or grades and enforced through inspection agencies associated with government departments.

Abstract

Grains in present context are food grains. The PFA Act includes cereals, millets, and pulses in food grains. At times, seeds of certain oilseeds like soybean are also referred to in the discussion of food grains. Grains have been cultivated for thousands of years. We have Grain Standards as established by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO), which are considered as International Standards. Another source is Codex Alimentarius Commission (Codex) under the aegis of FAO (UN), which operates a Committee to formulate standards that are referred to as Codex Standards. Many countries have a National Standards Institution, which develops National Standards for their main grain crops and other commodities and issues specifications along with methods of testing and analysis. Several countries, which are in developing status, adopt or modify international standards into their national system. The Grain Standards have been evolved and established for a variety of purposes but primarily to grade produce in agricultural marketing largely to facilitate the movement of grain, provide both sellers and buyers with guidelines to support financial transactions, and ensure that the produce will meet up with end-use requirements, or, increasingly to protect the consumers.

This chapter introduces grading and standardization as mechanisms for converting biological variation in eggs into defined commercial specifications. It examines grade factors, quality classes, egg sizing and weight classification, and Indian standards including AGMARK and BIS. International approaches such as Codex, USDA and EU frameworks are compared. The chapter also describes automated grading equipment, candling, packing systems and packaging requirements. Particular attention is given to Indian egg-marketing channels, price behaviour, cold-chain requirements and consumer perception.

Abstract
 
Grains are usually harvested above 20% (wb) moisture level and they are prone to microbial attack at high moisture level. In order to avoid both qualitative and quantitative losses that arise from microbial growth, grains are usually dried to safe moisture level. The safe storage moisture content may vary from 8-16% (wb), depending upon the grain and climate type. Therefore, drying is a necessary step in preventing these losses. Drying also reduces the bulk weight of the materials, thus easing transportation and storage. Drying can occur in thin layer or in deep bed. Different drying theories are proposed to characterize these drying processes. Theoretical as well empirical drying equations have been developed.

Abstract
Grain legumes, also known as pulses, are vital to sustainable agriculture due to their roles in enhancing soil fertility, providing essential nutrition, and supporting environmental sustainability. By establishing symbiotic relationships with nitrogen fixing bacteria, legumes naturally enrich soil with nitrogen, reducing reliance on synthetic fertilizers and fostering sustainable farming practices. Their inclusion in crop rotations not only boosts soil health but also supports food security, especially in developing countries where they are a key source of plant based protein and nutrients. The impact of climate change, including rising temperatures, altered precipitation patterns, and increased frequency of extreme weather events, presents significant challenges to agriculture. In this context, grain legumes demonstrate considerable climate resilience. Their drought tolerance, heat resistance, and ability to fix atmospheric nitrogen make them well-suited to withstand climate stress. Legumes exhibit mechanisms such as deep root systems, efficient water use, and adaptability to diverse environmental conditions, contributing to their robustness in the face of climate variability. To bolster the role of grain legumes in climate-resilient agriculture, climate-smart practices and technological advancements are essential. These include optimizing planting strategies, adopting water-efficient methods, and breeding for improved resilience traits. Addressing challenges such as climate variability, pest pressures, and resource limitations is crucial for maintaining the benefits of legumes. Future efforts should focus on developing robust management
practices and improved varieties to ensure the continued contribution of grain legumes to food security and environmental sustainability.
Keywords: Climate Resilience, Drought Tolerance, Grain Legumes, Heat Resistance, Sustainable Agriculture, Water Use Efficiency

Abstract
Grain legumes, a group of crops which belong to Fabaceae family, are primarily grown for their edible seeds. Pulses contain a high amount of protein (20-25%), vitamins, and minerals. Consumption of pulses can be beneficial for cardiovascular health, weight management, for diabetics, cancer management, bone health etc. So, grain legumes can play a significant role to address future global food security, environmental sustainability, and nutritional needs. The nutritional value of grain legumes can be significantly enhanced through biofortification, agronomic intervention, processing, and value addition. So, diversification of food habit with pulses and cereals can solve the prolong problem of malnutrition in developing countries including India. Despite such great importance, global food legume production has
been found to increase at a very slow pace. Keywords: Biofortification, Environmental sustainability, Food security, Grain legumes, Nutritional security
Introduction
Grain legumes or pulses are a group of crops which belong to family Fabaceae, are primarily grown for their edible seeds. The common examples of grain legumes include: bean (Phaseolus spp.), lentil (Lens culinaris), chickpea (Cicer arietinum), pea (Pisum sativum), soybean (Glycine max), lupin (Lupinus spp.), broad bean (Vicia faba), igeon pea (Cajanus cajan), grass pea (Lathyrus sativus), black gram (Vigna mungo), green gram (Vigna radiata). Grain legumes can play a significant role to address future global food security, environmental sustainability, and nutritional needs. Pulses are the second most important food crop after cereals and an important source of proteins, vitamins, and minerals. Pulses are popularly known as “Poor man’s meat” and “Rich man’s vegetable”. Pulses contain a high amount of protein (20-25%), which is almost double and triple of the protein content of wheat and rice, respectively and so can contribute significantly to the nutritional security of the country. Besides, they may serve the purpose of protein rich fodder and good quality green manure crop. Pulses can thrive well in low and marginal land with less external inputs. They act as erosion resisting crops because of its deep tap root
system, leafy growth, and close spacing. Pulses can also be grown as paira crop or inter-crop in different growing situations. Being a leguminous crop, it can fix atmospheric nitrogen with the help of its root nodules, resulting in low requirement of external fertilizer. Keeping the importance of pulses in mind, United Nation’s Food and Agricultural Organization (FAO) also declared 2016 as the ‘International Year of Pulses’.

3.1 Introduction

The production of food grains in India is around 200 million tonnes and most of the grains are converted to primary products after primary processing such as threshing, dehulling, de-branning. Some of the grains are converted to secondary products such as flour or grits. The yields of primary and secondary products range between 65-80% indicating a wastage of 20-35%. These wastes lead to unclean surroundings and air pollution due to fine dust. Hence, proper waste management/utilization of food grain processing industries has become a societal need for a clean environment.

The term ‘waste’ has different meanings to different people. It can be retractions from the main process or less utilizable by-products or undesirable waste material depending on the commodity. All food-processing industries generate wastes and create problems for its management. The best way the food processing industry can treat its waste is to avoid producing it. Much of the waste now being produced or generated in some food processing plants can become a managed resource for producing economic credits. In fact, waste utilization is one of the world’s prominent industries and its activities cut across the normal divisions into which industries are placed. Similarly, there will be wastes from agriculture, animal and meat industries, textile, rubber etc. Even the local governmental activities that collect and dispose the household wastes become apparent in terms of the huge size of it.

Food is a vital requirement for all living beings, as it provides the essential nutrients necessary for growth, development, and recovery. Humans depend on both plants and animals for nourishment, which we acquire through agricultural practices and animal farming. With the increasing global demand for food, crop yields have risen, which has led to a greater reliance on warehouses for grain storage. However, merely increasing food production is insufficient to combat hunger and malnutrition, as food security also heavily depends on ensuring that food is accessible to everyone. Crops, however, are exposed to various threats, such as pests, weeds, and diseases, which can drastically reduce yields if not managed adequately.
A significant issue is storage losses, which are driven by both biological elements (such as fungi, insects, and rodents) and environmental factors (such as unsuitable storage conditions or extreme temperatures). These losses result in various negative consequences, including:
• Reduced food quality
• Lower seed germination rates
• Loss of weight in crops
• Discolored produce
These problems can impede the marketing of harvested crops, leading to unsold goods and considerable losses for farmers and distributors.
To reduce these losses, it’s crucial to adopt proper measures like efficient treatments and continuous monitoring of storage conditions. Grains should be stored in environments that prevent deterioration. This can be achieved by ensuring thorough cleaning before storage, drying grains thoroughly (both under the sun and in the shade), and taking steps to control pests, including fumigation.

15.1 Fondant

The word fondant is said to come from the French verb fondre to dissolve. Confectionery fondants are normally made by boiling a sugar and glucose syrup in order to concentrate it before the mixture is cooled with beating to produce fine sucrose crystals. Some fondants used in baking are made by mixing icing sugar with a sucrose and glucose mixture. The icing sugar has a small particle size because it has been milled whereas the sucrose in a crystallised fondant has small crystals. It is possible to make a fondant using dextrose instead of sucrose. Crystalline dextrose has a positive heat of solution, i.e. heat is absorbed, and this produces a marked cooling effect which goes well with a peppermint flavour, but one which is not particularly attractive economically, but they can be in some other countries.

1.    The outer layer of cereals is called

(a) Pericarp

(b) Germ

(c) Seed coat

(d) Endosperm

2.    The grain or edible seed of a cereal is known botanically as a

(a) Testa

(b) Caryopsis

(c) Seed coat

(d) Endocarp

Grapes belongs to the family Vitaceae and genus Vitis. The region between Black and Caspian Sea is considered to be the origin of grapes. Its association with man is believed to be older than that of rice or wheat. Viticulture and wine-making started in Egypt at about 3000-4000 BC. It is presumed that it spread to India in 620 B.C. The medical treatises written by Charaka and Sushruta in the 1^st century AD reveal use of grapes for medicinal purpose. Viticulture in India started in early 1960 and today assumes an important position in horticulture crop in view of its area occupied, production, value addition and job creation in both rural and urban areas.

Popular Varieties of Grapes

Thomson Seedless and its clones viz.; Tas-A-Ganesh, Sonaka and Manik Chaman; Perlette, Banglore Blue (Isabella), Kishmish Chernyi (Sharad Seedless), Muscat Hamburg (Gulabi), Flame Seedless, Red Globe, Crimson Seedless and Manjri Naveen (A clonal selection from Centennial Seedless).

Uses

Grapes has several uses like table purpose, raisin, juice, wine making and canning, etc. It has several medicinal and curative properties. It is used in Ayurvedic preparations for making Kada or arishtam (herbal tonic or medicine). The grapes which are used as a fresh fruit are designated as table grapes. These are having attractive appearance, and good eating and shipping quality and long shelf-life. The grapes that can be dried are included in the Raisin grapes. Wine grapes which are primarily used to produce wine are known as wine grapes. In many parts of the world, grapes are grown for wine preparation. Grapes with high acid and low sugars contents are suitable for wine preparation.

ABSTRACT

Green technologies are required in the field of food processing and production in order to achieve food security and to reduce adverse environmental impact. Application of nano technology in food processing and production can advance the food safety and quality, increase the bioavailability of nutrients and thereby improving human health. Nanotechnology can be applied to achieve green perspective like development of biodegradable packaging materials thereby reducing adverse environmental effect. Use of naturally occurring nanoparticles as additives can reduce the use of chemicals in food products. This chapter deals with the potential of nanotechnology to achieve green aspects in food processing and production.Main focusses are on achieving food security and environmental sustainability. Chapter also describes about the principles of nanotechnology and methods to achieve green aspectin food sector with the application of nanotechnology. Application of nanotechnology in food processing and production along with safety, regulations and accompanying laws are discussed in this chapter.

Leafy vegetables are rich sources of provitamin-A, vitamin C and minerals like calcium, magnesium, iron, etc., They are the riches sources of roughes or fibres essential in human diet. The ICMR recommended dietary allowances of green leafy vegetables for adult women is 100g/day and men are 40g/day while for school children above 10 years it is 50g/day. Greens are rich in vitamins and minerals essential for healthy functioning of organs of body. Amaranth, beet leaf, spinach, fenugreek, etc., are the major leaf vegetables grown in India. In addition, a number of under-utilized annual crops are also grown as leaf vegetables in specific regions. Tender stems and leaves of a number of perennial crops are rich sources of vitamins and minerals and are used for cooking.

10.1. Amaranth (Amaranthus sp)

Amaranth is the most common leaf vegetable grown in India. Amarnath is an annual herb with erect growth and scarce to profusely branching habit. Stem is succulent and green or purple or mixed shades of these two. There are two sections in Amaranthus, viz., Amaranthus and Blitopsis. Majority of leaf cultivars grown in India belong to Amaranthus tricolor. Among the several kinds of greens Amaranthus occupy a special place because it has a large number of species grown in one or the other part of country.

Some of the important improved varieties released are CO-2 and CO-5 from TNAU, Coimbatore, Pusa Kiran, Pusa Kirti and Pusa Lal Choulia from IARI, New Delhi, Arka Arunima and Arka Suguna from IIHR, Bangalore. Amaranth are popular all over India by different names. While in northern parts it is popularly known as choulia, in south it is popularly called as keerai or cheera or koora or soppa. The general composition of amaranth is given below: