eChapters

An efficient management of animals will be incomplete without a well planned and adequate housing of animals. Improper planning of animal housing leads to additional labor charges. The housing should have proper sanitation, durability, arrangements for the production of clean milk under convenient and economic conditions.

a) General Housing Requirements

Dairy animals will be more efficient in the production of milk and in reproduction if they are protected from extreme heat, and particularly from direct sunshine. This can be achieved through provision of shade in tropical and subtropical climates. If dairy animals are confined, the area should be free of mud and manure in order to reduce hoof infection to a minimum. Concrete floors or pavements are ideal where the area per animal is limited. However, where ample space is available, an earth yard, properly sloped for good drainage is adequate.

According to Futter (2001) it is very important the way we cook our food. If the cooking is inadequate it causes food poisoning. While cooking there can be cross contamination starting from raw foods. It includes hands or utensils which can cause food poisoning. Most foods, especially meat, poultry, fish and eggs should be cooked thoroughly to kill most types of food poisoning bacteria. Generally the food should be cooked to a temperature of 75 °C or hotter. When food is cooked, it should be eaten promptly, kept hotter than 60 °C or cooled, covered and stored in the fridge or freezer. Some people are more at risk from food poisoning than others. In order to buy safe food in the market like buying pre-cut produce as a half a watermelon or cut veggies from a salad bar, it is important to choose items that are refrigerated or surrounded by ice. They must be kept in separate bags. FDA (2019) has studied the contamination in lettuce. Shopping at a farmer’s market is a great way to get locally-grown, fresh fruit, vegetables, and other foods. However, safety of these produce needs to be checked. Many markets have their own food safety rules and vendors must comply with them along with the government regulations. Fruits and vegetables must be washed thoroughly under running water just before eating, cutting or cooking. Fruits and vegetables must never be washed with soap or detergent or using commercial produce washes. Even if it has to be peeled before eating, it is still important to wash it first. Any bacteria present on the outside of items like melons can be transferred to the inside when it is cut or peeled. They should be refrigerated within two hours after preparation. The juice or cider must be treated (pasteurized) to kill harmful bacteria. Pregnant women, children, older adults and people with weak immune systems should drink only pasteurized or treated juice. Raw milk can harbor dangerous microorganisms like Salmonella, E. coli, and Listeria. World India (2017) has looked into the food regulations. These can pose serious health risks. Pregnant women, older adults and people with weakened immune systems are at higher risk for illness caused by Listeria. One source for these bacteria is soft cheese made from unpasteurized milk. It is vital to check the label to make sure that it is made from pasteurized or treated milk. Make sure that eggs are properly chilled at the market. FDA requires that untreated shell eggs must be stored and displayed at 45°F. While buying eggs it needs to be ensured that the eggs are clean and the shells are not cracked. Meat should be properly chilled even in the market and kept in closed coolers with adequate amounts of ice to maintain cool temperatures. If it is brought in an insulated bag or cooler during transit it is very beneficial to keep the quality. It should be always kept separately from your other purchases, so that the juices from raw meat (which may contain harmful bacteria) do not come in contact with produce and other foods. Essays (2018) have written a very comprehensive overview of food safety.

Today, organic and local foods are preferred as they use less pesticides or fertilizers. However, these foods, like others, can be exposed to harmful bacteria during the growing and harvesting process. The farmers and distributors must use good sanitary practices to minimize food contamination. Consumers should cook food properly. The street food vendors are a traditional and indigenous fast food approaching in most countries of the South-East Asia Region. As these are economical they cater to millions of consumers. Among safe street foods there are many contributing factors that are associated with the safety of street food. WHO had conducted a survey in 1993 covering 100 street foods in 100 countries around the world. It revealed that the major health threat comes from raw and undercooked food, infected food handlers and inadequate hygiene practices in processing and storing such food. If the street food is cooked well and is served hot, then the chances of food poisoning is less. The water quality, hygienic conditions and the level of cleanliness especially in the summer season are the major factors for food poisoning. However improvements in physical infrastructure and hygienic conditions are growing as consumers are also demanding quality food. Michael et al., (2017) have looked into organic versus conventional foods.

Food, Water and Air are three essential elements for existence and sustenance of life. Primarily food is manufactured by the plants by trapping the energy of Sun in presence of carbondioxide and water. Foods can be broadly classified into energy foods and protective foods. While energy is required for all bodily functions, protective foods confer a degree of resistance against diseases, corrects some disorder and prevents occurrence of certain conditions that occur due to deficiency of certain elements and phytochemicals. The balanced diets are said to be those which have an appropriate amount of carbohydrates, proteins and fats. All these three components play certain essential role in the process of metabolism. Deficiency or insufficiency of these major food components may lead to energy deficient disease conditions and are considered responsible for malnutrition world wide. Energy deficiency can threaten the existence of life. Food grains, tubers and roots are major sources of carbohydrates, and proteins. Sufficient intake of carbohydrates, proteins and fats alone does not ensure health. Health and wellbeing are the two important aspects of life, which makes it worth living. For being healthy, besides energy, body requires minerals and vitamins which are present mainly in fruits and vegetables. The role phytochemicals play in cleansing the body and fight against diseases, was understood quite recently. Therefore, for a healthy life we need to consume a balanced diet comprising of appropriate amounts of carbohydrates, proteins, fats, fruits, vegetables and nuts. While the former three can be consumed based on the energy requirement of an individual, one should consume at least 180 and 300 grams of fruits and vegetables respectively everyday.

Introduction

Nutrition, a basic human need, is a critical part of health and development. Nutrition can be defined as the intake of food, deliberated in relation to the body’s dietary needs. On one hand, good nutrition – an adequate, well balanced diet combined with regular physical activity – is a foundation of good health, whereas,poor nutritionleads toreducedproductivity,impairedmental andphysical development, increased susceptibility to disease, and reducedimmunity. According to WHO, under-nutrition, together with vitamin and mineral deficiencies accounts for one-third of all child deaths and impairs healthy development and lifelong productivity. At the same time, sedentary lifestyles, demographic shifts, urbanization and the liberalization of markets have steered the world population to being overweight along with risk of chronic diseases like hypertension, dyslipidemia, type 2 diabetes, coronaryheart disease, stroke, etc.; thus, resulting in a double burden of malnutrition.

To address this dual burden of malnutrition, individuals needaccess to sufficient and good quality food; but focussing solely on food security is unlikely to solve the problem of global malnutrition. The challenges of malnutrition cannot be solvedjustbyincreasingfoodproductioninordertoimprove healthand nutritional status of the population. To resolve such challenges, awareness about food choices for optimal health plays a pivotal role among population.

Human nutrition is the science of understanding food; its component; intake; and how it is related to health, growth, development and diseases. Human nutrition involves the study of ingestion, digestion, absorption and assimilation of the nutrients; their metabolic functions, deficiency or excess disease as well as their regulation through several factors such as choosing particular food components/nutraceuticals or physical activity.

INTRODUCTION

The concept of hurdle technology has been developed as a new way to realize safe, stable, nutritious and economical foods. It employs combination of different preservation techniques to achieve a multi-target, mild but reliable preservation of foods. The application of hurdle technology in food preservation is increasing rapidly worldwide. Over the years, insight into the hurdle effect has been broadened and the application of hurdle technology has been extended. A better understanding of the occurrence and interaction of food preservative factors (hurdles) in foods is the basis for improvements in food preservation. If the hurdles for the microbes are known, the microbiological stability and safety of this food might be optimized by changing the intensity or quality of these hurdles. Using the proper combination of hurdles, it is possible to improve not only the microbial stability and safety but also the sensory and nutritive quality as well as the economical aspects of food. The hurdle concept is also referred to as food preservation by combined methods, combined process, combination preservation or combination processing techniques. The hurdle effect is of fundamental importance for the preservation of foods. The illustration of hurdle effect was first introduced by Leistner in 1978. Based on the understanding of hurdle effects, the concept of hurdle technology was derived (Leistner 1985).

Every research in agriculture aims at developing a promising new technology or refines an age old technology that can help addressing the improvement in crop yield. This is a worldwide scenario to meet up with the food needs of the growing population and reducing agricultural land resources. Many traditions in the world are associated with vast knowledge of cultivating the food crops, vegetables, fruits etc using selected methods that are modified based on the needs, climatic conditions and the resources available in the place of settlements. Soil based agriculture is the most popular method of growing plants since soil is considered as the main source of nutrients and water required for the healthy growth of crops. Generally it includes 3 major steps, ploughing, sowing and harvesting.

Safe, wholesome and nutritious food is vital for sustenance, good health, food and nutritional security and augmentation of sustainable development of an individual. Also, safe food helps in the growth of the national economy and enhances the trade and tourism sector. Foods that are unsafe containing various kinds of microorganisms can cause chronic diseases or illnesses varying from diarrhea to cancer.

Indicator bacteria are types of bacteria that are used to provide an indication of poor hygiene, inadequate processing and or post - process contamination in seafood, water, feed, ice, equipments, workers, etc. Absence of indicator bacteria in seafood and aquaculture products provides a degree of quality assurance that the fishery products are hygienically good and have employed proper processing methods whereas their presence clearly indicates either severe problem or failure occurred during the processing, under-processing or post-process contamination. The indicator bacteria in fish and fishery products are mainly from enterobacteriaceae and coliforms group of bacteria. Traditionally, indicator micro-organisms have been used to suggest the presence of pathogens (Berg, 1978) and it includes the general microbial Process indicators, Faecal indicators, and Index and Model indicator organisms. The Process indicator is a group of organisms that indicates the efficacy of a processing and tested by Total Plate count (TPC)/ Total heterophilic count or total coliforms (MPN method). Fecal indicator is a group of organisms that indicates the presence of fecal contamination and could be tested for fecal coliforms, thermotolerant coliforms (MPN method) and E.coli (EMB and IMViC test). Index and model organisms are a group of organisms that indicates the presence of pathogens such as E.coli are an index for Salmonella and coliphages as model of human enteric viruses. The pathogenic indicator bacteria viz., Coliforms, Fecal coliforms, E.coli, Klebsiella, Enterobacter, Citrobacter, Fecal Streptococci, Sulphite reducing clostridia, Clostridium perfringens, Bifidobacteria, Bacteriophages, coliphages and Bacteroides fragilis etc., are associated with food poisoning. In addition, pathogenic viruses, protozoa and parasites are also present in fecal matter. Fecal contamination is mainly from sewage of human source, livestock, poultry manure, pets and wildlife. Infection caused by these pathogens mainly depend on the level of microbial load.

Dairy equipment and utensils with which milk and milk products come into contact are the main sources of contamination in the products. By the use of effective equipment cleaning and sterilization methods on routine basis, milk of high bacteriological quality can be consistently produced. In composite milk plant, a variety of equipment and utensils are used. The use of stainless steel for the fabrication of dairy utensils and equipment provide highly polished and hard smooth surface that can be cleaned readily, apart from showing resistance to corrosive action of detergents and bactericidal solutions. Utmost care is taken to avoid dents and scratches, which could be the possible focal points of subsequent contamination. To overcome all these problems aluminium and stainless steel vessels and equipment present an ideal situation.

Abstracts

To ensure safe food and adequate sanitation programs, the equipment used for processing of food products must be designed, fabricated, constructed, and installed according to sound hygienic design principles. This ensures the equipment can be adequately cleaned and sanitized, and that surfaces are resistant to daily exposure to corrosive food products and cleaning/sanitizing chemicals. This chapter focuses primarily on fundamental principles of hygienic design, which protect the product from microbial, chemical, and foreign-body contamination. This is followed by a discussion of general aspects of hygienic construction and design of food equipments, the selection of materials of construction and specification of surface finishes, fabrication, installation and cleaning and sanitization. Quality of raw materials or foods ingredients, proper processing, packaging and storage of finished products decides the quality of the food products. Planning for plant and equipment layout, its design, services (water, air, refrigeration, steam), waste disposal etc. are some of the critical factors, which contributes to quality. In addition, the food processing equipment must comply with strict standards and regulations, which are necessary for securing the quality and safety of the food products to the consumers.

The Concept of ‘Clean Milk’ Production

Although milk is nature’s most ideal and perfect single food both for the newborn and the mature human beings, the possibility of it being a source of biological and chemical hazards cannot be excluded. In view of the immense dietary importance of milk, the need for production of safe, clean and wholesome milk is emphasized. The term ‘clean milk’ does not mean milk in which all visible dirt is absent or milk from which it has been removed; rather it does denote raw milk from healthy animals, that has been produced and handled under hygienic conditions; that contains only small number of harmless bacteria and that possesses a good keeping quality without being treated by heat. In other words, the unhygienic production of milk may lead to inferior keeping quality as a result of rapid microbial multiplication under favourable storage conditions apart from serving as a potential health hazard. These microorganisms cause the milk to sour quickly, putrefy and develop undesirable flavours, colour defects, ropiness and bitterness. On the other hand, the pathogenic microorganisms, which may gain entry through various sources, may cause many diseases to the consumers.

Ice bank cooling: Storing of fruit and vegetable in storage chamber with positive ventilation and system countries where ice formation is allowed during night time (as electricity cost of night is less as compared to the day time). Melting of ice occurs during day time and with proper air circulation by means of ventilation process, approximately 0.5 10C temperature with 90% RH in the chamber is maintained. Ice Bank Cooler / Air forced cooler leads to desiccation of the produce (Plate 359). So use forced air high humidity cooler and these are known as Ice Bank Cooler. Ice bank coolers are useful for strawberry.

Ice cream: Ice cream may be define as frozen dairy product made by suitable blending and processing of cream and other milk products together with sugar and flavour.

Ice cream cone: A thin crisp edible cone for holding ice cream and filled with ice cream.

Ice point: It is the temperature of equilibrium between ice and water under normal atmospheric pressure (Plate 360).

Ichthylogy: It is the branch of the zoology that deals with the study of fishes (Pisces).

Icicle: It is small tapering piece of the ice formed by freezing of dropping water (Plate 361).

Ice cream over the years has come to acquire an easy acceptance as a healthy, nutritious and hygienic food for the aged, sick, growing children and adults. Its popularity, as demonstrated on all types of occasions is growing fast and its potential appears to be unlimited.

Gone are the days when the word “Ice Cream” was synonymous with strawberry and vanilla flavours or the innocuous orange. Ice cream is available in many forms, flavours and packages. Today, there are exotic variations to titilate the palate, such as Jingle Bells, Goody goody Gum Drops, Champagne Snowballs, Mr. Frost, Tutty Fruity, Butter Scotch, etc, waiting to launch customers on a gastronomical voyage.

It is uncertain how long ice cream has been produced, however, the International Association of Ice cream Manufacturers (1966) traces the beginnings of ice cream and frozen desserts to iced drinks enjoyed by Alexander the Great in the fourth century B.C. down through the years Nero in the first century A. D., Marco Polo in the 13^th century through Italy and France to England in 1643-1649, and to America around 1700. From a very old writings it has been learnt that the Chinese liked a frozen product made by mixing fruit juices with snow, what we now call water ice. It is believed that ice cream evolved from iced beverages and water ices that were popular in the medieval period. This technique later spread to ancient Greece and Rome, where the wealthy, were partial to frozen desserts.

After disappearing for several centuries, ice creams in various forms reappeared in Italy in the Middle Ages, most probably as a result of Marco Polo returning to Italy in 1295 after a 16-17 year stay in China, where he had learnt to appreciate a frozen dessert based on milk. There is no gainsaying the fact that the true origin of ice cream cannot be proclaimed with a fair measure of certainty but, all the same, the Italians claim that Benaroo Bountalenti, a resident of Tuscany, invented ice cream in the early 1300s. From Italy ice cream spread over Europe during the 17^th century, and for long remained a luxury product for the royal courts. Italian ice cream was very popular in London around 1870.

A greenfield ice cream project involves much more than installing production machinery. It requires integrated planning of the business model, market opportunity, capacity, product portfolio, plant layout, process technology, refrigeration, utilities, packaging, cold storage, quality systems, regulatory compliance, distribution, working capital, and future scalability. This chapter presents a practical framework for evaluating new ice cream manufacturing projects, with particular attention to a representative 1000 LPH facility. Different project scales and business models are considered along with major plant and machinery requirements. The chapter also highlights common project-planning mistakes and best practices. It helps entrepreneurs and investors assess technical feasibility, operational readiness, financial requirements, scalability, and long-term commercial viability.

India is emerging as one of the most dynamic ice cream markets, with growing demand driven by urbanisation, rising disposable income, premiumisation, regional flavours, modern retail, quick commerce, and expanding cold-chain infrastructure. This chapter examines the evolution and structure of the Indian ice cream market, major growth drivers, consumer segments, competitive conditions, and emerging opportunities. It also considers important challenges including seasonality, freezer investment, cold-chain reliability, SKU complexity, regulatory compliance, working capital, and market returns. The chapter provides strategic guidance for entrepreneurs and manufacturers on market entry, positioning, product portfolios, distribution, and sustainable growth in India’s increasingly competitive ice cream industry.

18.1 Introduction
Ice cream is produced by freezing a pasteurised mixture that is derived from milk or milk products, with or without nutritive sweeteners and other approved non-dairy constituents, in accordance with FSSAI standards. Except for softserve ice cream, which may remain malleable, this product must freeze solid and may contain air. Ice cream is manufactured using bovine or buffalo milk, cream, or milk products. It may also contain cane sugar, eggs, fruits, fruit juices, preserved fruits, nuts, chocolate, edible flavours, and approved colours. Up to 0.5% by weight of stabilisers and emulsifiers are permissible. The mélange must be heated to the appropriate temperature prior to freezing. A minimum of 10% milk fat, 3.5% protein, and 36% total solids must be present in the product. However, the proportion of milk fat may be reduced to no less than 8% by weight when any of the aforementioned preparations contains fruits, almonds, or both. A declaration to that effect must be included on the label, and starch may be added to a maximum extent of 5%.
18.2 Classification
Some of the frozen desserts can be classified as follows.
1. Plain: Plain ice cream has minimal coloring and flavoring, such as vanilla and coffee.
2. Chocolate: Chocolate ice cream is flavored with cocoa or chocolate
3. Fruit: Fruit ice cream contains fruits like strawberry, apricot, pineapple, mango, or banana, which may be fresh, frozen, canned, or preserved.
4. Nut: Nut ice cream includes nuts like almonds, pistachios, walnuts, or cashews, with optional additional flavoring or coloring.

SOURCES OF LOSSES
In most of the cases of excessive fat or product loss, a combination of several factors rather than any single factor are responsible.
 
Inaccuracy in weighing: Receiving room scales should be checked regularly with a set of weights. The check should be made immediately before weighing operations begin. Improper drainage of the weighbowl will permit a carry over into the next batch dumped, resulting in incorrect weighing. Errors in weight in bulk handling methods may be caused also by improper leveling of the tank, incorrect calibration of the measuring rod, or carelessness on the part of the person taking the measurement.
 
Inaccuracy in sampling: Failure to collect representative samples may sometime cause sizeable losses. Milk should be properly agitated before taking samples. The composite sample should be preserved and refrigerated and should be protected from mould growth.

I. Dairy Farm Equipments

Introduction

Seasonal or annual fluctuation in weather patterns is termed as climate variability. However, climate change is a change in the mean state of weather statistic over three decades of time period. Climate change is exacerbating the challenges faced by the agriculture as well as horticulture sector. For last 10 years, Asia is facing the serious threats from climate change and variability such as tsunami, f loods and droughts. Extreme events are expected to have large negative impacts on crop productivity. The rise in temperature and reduction in rainfall under semi-arid environments are likely to reduce production of fruits, vegetables and flowers in the coming 20 years. The production and quality of fresh fruit and vegetable crops can be directly and indirectly affected by exposure to high temperatures and elevated levels of carbon dioxide and ozone. The rise in atmospheric CO2 levels due to global climate change and horticultural practices has both direct and indirect effects on secondary metabolite synthesis in plants.

INTRODUCTION

Aquaculture had undergone rapid expansion and intensification in the recent past and has taken the shape of a full-fledged diversified industry. But the risk involved in aquaculture activity has also increased significantly due to the outbreak of diseases which has a devastating effect on the aquaculture crops. Fish are aquatic and poikilothermic, their existence and performance are dominated by the quality of their environment . The aquatic environment is a complex system subject to constant physical and chemical changes brought about by natural and manmade processes. Therefore, choosing the proper site to develop aquaculture facility is paramount to its success.

A disease is an abnormal condition of an organism caused by infection, inherent weakness or environmental stress; it prevents the organism from functioning normally which ultimately leads to death (Avault, 1998). In an aquatic environment, there is a profound balancing of relationship between host (fish), pathogen and the environment existing and this is the fundamental concept to disease susceptibility of fish (Snieszko, 1973). A disease organism may be present in the environment or host, but will not cause disease as long as the host has high natural resistant or the physical condition of the host is strong. Once the imbalance is created to any of the component, opportunistic pathogen invades the host resulting to the outbreak of disease.

Livestock is considered one of the essential variables in the revenue of a farmer. The sector (excluding fisheries) contributes 30 per cent to India’s agriculture gross domestic product, and it is valued at more than Rs. 9 lakh crores. India is also one of the largest producers of milk in the world; around 70 million rural households are engaged in professions linked to dairy. India is also the second largest exporter of bovine meat after Brazil. This sector provides a substantial income to farmers and supports the economy by generating enough demand in the rural and semi-urban regions. This animal husbandry sector comprising dairy and poultry is extremely valuable for farmer’s income security, and Covid-19 has the potential to disrupt this sector.

In developing countries such as India, where dairy farming is one of the most important sources of livelihood for 60 million rural households, 80 per cent of whom are landless, small and marginal farmers who depend on dairy for daily income, the crisis is extreme. Thus, even a small decline in the growth of the dairy sector significantly affects a large chunk of our population which are already vulnerable due to low income, poor savings, and lack of livelihood alternatives. Small production in multiple households leads to more reliance on efficient transportation for procurement. In addition to this, the Indian dairy sector is still dominated by the unorganized sector which handles more than 50 per cent of the marketable surplus. Milkman and vendors collect a small quantity of loose milk from different households and then supply it to urban consumers, roadside eateries, hotels, and sweetshops. Closure of shops and restrictions on transportation has ruthlessly disturbed this arrangement. Even in the formal sector out of the total milk processed 65 to 70 per cent is sold as liquid milk which is immediately vended after packing and only 30 per cent is processed into other dairy products like ghee, butter, cheese, curd, ice-cream, milk powder, etc. Thus, the formal sector also lacks sufficient infrastructure and storage facilities for processing and storing surplus milk after value addition.

2.1 Introduction

Each step in the food industry system e.g. food production, processing, transportation, storage, distribution and marketing, has some impact on the environment and there is much concern about environmental pollution. Due to the highly diversified nature of the food industry, various food processing, handling and packaging operations create wastes of different quality and quantity, which, if not treated, could lead to increasing disposal problems and severe pollution problems [24]. The preservation of the natural environment from industrial pollution is currently receiving much attention. In food industry, the most important problem is treatment and disposal of large quantities of waste water, a by-product of various processing operations. It is one of the largest industry groups comprising the manufacturing sector of the U.S. economy [47]. Likewise, India is the world’s second largest producer of food next to China, and has the potential of being the largest food processor. The total food production in India is likely to double in the next ten years [22]. Flour and grain; soft drinks and carbonated water; breweries; starch and miscellaneous food products; meat, poultry and fish; tea, coffee and other beverages; fruit juices; animal feed; sugar; distilleries and blending of spirits; cocoa, chocolates and sugar confectioneries; agricultural and food chemicals and industrial packaging are important sub-sectors of the food processing industry. Food processing projects involve the processing and packaging of meat products, fish and shell fish, dairy products, fruit and vegetables, grains and beverages production. It includes refinement, preservation, improvement of product, storage, handling, packaging and canning (Fig. 1). The processing may involve receiving and storing raw or partially processed plant, animal or other food materials, processing the raw materials into finished products, packaging and storing the finished products.

Food provides a sense of wellbeing and comfort and makes people feel good. In this world of a growing population, the need for affordable, safe and good quality food is rising constantly. On the other hand, there is growing awareness of customers who demand that food be produced and supplied hygienically in socially responsible and eco-friendly ways.

Acinetobacter baumannii is an opportunistic pathogen giving rise to nosocomial infections causing threat to public health. Studies of biofilm-forming genes was done in A. baumannii isolates by PCR technique. To study the relationships of genes a technique based on PCR sequences along with multilocus sequence typing (MLST) were utilized (Saeed et al., 2020). Goudarzi, Mehdi et al. (2019) studied the genetic diversity and biofilm formation analysis of Staphylococcus aureus causing urinary tract infections in Tehran, Iran. The biofilm forming and adhesion encoding genes were studied along with distribution of different agr and spa types in S. aureus isolates by PCR screening and multiplex PCR. The workers found that the ability to produce biofilm was higher among MRSA strains as compared to MSSA strains. The most prevalent biofilm forming gene was icaD (77.3%), followed by icaA (76%), icaB (57.3%) and icaC (50.7%). Acinetobacter baumannii is a nosocomial pathogen which is commonly present in hospitals and is a causal organism of many diseases. A. baumannii isolates have been known as multidrug-resistant (MDR). For controlling such serious organism only molecular techniques have been found to be effective. 

SYNOPSIS

After the break-up of the Soviet Union in 1992, the countries of Central Asia and the Caucasus (CAC) began making the transition from controlled to market economies. All of the countries have programs for economic and social development as well as food security. Over the last decade, the regional population increased 11%, from 72 million in 2002 to 79 million in 2012. Agricultural production has increased throughout the region. For example, vegetable production per decade has nearly doubled due to an increase in the area of the crops grown and to increased yields, and was more than 19 million t in 2011.

INTRODUCTION

Inspite of recent technological developments which have helped to increase agricultural production in many countries, growth of plants and animals continue to depend to a large extent on the weather conditions. Each plant has its own climatic requirements for growth and development and any large scale deviation from it exert negative influence.

Growth of plants is most sensitive to temperature just above a threshold value and near the maximum value, where growth normally stops. Therefore, periods of extreme temperature i. e. low temperatures below the threshold value and high temperatures above the maxima are hazardous to plant development and growth. Extreme temperature conditions during cold spells cause stress and frost; high temperatures lead to heat stress, and both affect agricultural production. Snow and ice storms in late spring or early autumn are very hazardous to many temperate crops.

Similarly extremes of moisture conditions namely dry desiccating winds, drought episodes and low moisture conditions as well as very humid atmospheric conditions including wet spells tend to affect agriculture. High soil moisture situations of water logging and flooding associated with heavy rainfall and tropical storms have adverse effect on plant growth and development since they influence the rate of transpiration, leaf area expansion and ultimately plant productivity. Drastic changes in rainfall variability can have very significant impact, particularly in climatically marginal zones such as arid, semi-arid and sub-humid areas where incidence of widespread drought is frequent. Dry desiccating and strong winds reduce agricultural production as a result of very high evapotranspiration rates. It also causes mechanical damage to plant with weak stems by lodging such as the sugarcane and the banana.

Abstract
 
Drying is one of the most popular methods used for preserving products and extending their shelf lives by reducing moisture content to a low level to prevent microbial spoilage and moisture-mediated deteriorative reactions. As an efficient technology with high heat and mass transfer rates, impingement drying has been commonly used in various industrial drying such as tissue paper, textiles, photographic films, coated paper, nonwovens, carpets, lumber etc. In the past two decades, air impingement technology has got more and more attention in the field of food and agricultural products processing.

Introduction Rice cultivation is a means of livelihood for a large number of people from the state of Assam, India (Saikia, 2019). It is related to the cultural aspects in rural Assam where people indulge themselves in traditional as well as modern ways of farming. Like any other north-eastern states in India, rice majorly dominates the Assamese cuisine. It is the primary source of diet in Assam. There are more than 100 varieties that are genetically modified breeds in which indigenous varieties contribute to 20 germplasm (https://www.rkbassam.in/). The different rice varieties of Assam have different culinary applications in both savoury and sweet cuisines. The intermediate and high amylose rice, parboiled or nonparboiled are consumed as staple for major meals while the low amylose rice is mostly consumed as snacks, breakfast cereals and desserts. The major constituent of rice is starch consisting of about 90% of the mass. Thus, the major compositional changes occurring in rice is due to starch. Starch is a polymer of glucose linked by glycosidic bond. It consists of amylose (linked by alpha 1- 4 linear chains) and amylopectin (alpha 1-4 & alpha 1-6 branched chains). On the basis of composition, rice is classified as high amylose (>25%), intermediate amylose (20 -25%), low amylose (7-20%) and waxy or glutinous (1–2%) types (Juliano, 1979).

Pineapple [Ananas comosus (L.) Merr.] is an important commercial tropical fruit crop under the family Bromeliaceae. Centre of origin of this fruit can be traced back to Brazil, South America. It is eulogized as “Queen of Fruit” or “Friendship Fruit” or “Haven Fruit” or “Golden Queen”. The word ‘Pineapple’ came from the Spanish word “Pina” based on appearance of fruit which resembles a pine cone. Now, pineapple is termed as “Boon for dry land agriculture”. Pineapple is an introduced crop in India and was first introduced in Goa by Portuguese. The largest producer of pineapple is Thailand and India ranks 6th in the world pineapple production. In India, Tripura, Assam, West Bengal, Kerala are the leading pineapple producers. Pineapple is a CAM (Crassulacean Acid Metabolism), monocarpic (each stem flowers only once and dies after fruiting), herbaceous perennial plant (Baruwa, 2013) and is suitable for cultivation in xerophytic conditions (Baraily and Deb, 2018).

The earliest written references to pineapple are found in the reference of Christopher Columbus, Gonzalo Fernández de Oviedo y Valdés, and Sir Walter Raleigh. They found pineapple growing in the West Indies mainly for for food and wine making. The Portuguese sailors were responsible for early dissemination of the pineapple and introduced it to Saint Helena in 1502. They also carried it to Africa and India by about 1550. Cultivation of pineapple had spread over most of the tropical countries including some of the islands of the South Pacific before the end of the 16th century. Costa Rica, Brazil, China, India, and Thailand are now major growers of pineapple.

Synopsis

Food safety has become increasingly important with globalization due to various factors such as increased volume and diversity of trade in foods, greater public demand for health protection, changing hazards e.g., resistant microbes, more sophisticated methods for detection of hazards, changes in production and consumption pattern, etc. Food safety contributes significantly to food security as unsafe and poor quality food leads to illnesses as well as food wastage. This leads to a strong need to emphasize not only on availability of food but also ensure that the same is safe.

The food we eat contains nourishing substances called nutrients which are required by human body for proper functioning and maintenance of body health. They are classified into five groups such as:

Carbohydrates,

Protein,

Fats,

Minerals

Vitamins

India, one of the largest food producer countries (I in milk production, II in fruit and vegetable production and III in food grain production at world level), possesses the potential of being the biggest with the food and agricultural sector contributing around 26 percent of the Gross Domestic Product (GDP). It is a paradox that people of the country producing such huge quantities of food including fruits, vegetables, milk, cereals grains etc. are still suffering from many nutritional deficiencies in their diet, and even in some places, the stomachs of people remain unfilled for the want of food. The credit of this would predominantly go to the poor postharvest infrastructure as well as knowhow and accessibility to the facilities. All this makes us one among those countries having largest postharvest losses. The reduction of losses occuring during food handling, processing, storage, distribution and use would be an indirect way of increasing the food production and making the country self-sufficient in nutritional requirements.

Indian Spices: These are dried, fragrant, aromatic or pungent vegetables or plant substances. They can be whole, broken or in ground forms. Primary function in food is seasoning rather than nutrition and which contributes to the flavour and piquancy in foods and beverages. These have been used as food additives widely since ancient times [http://www.imedpub.com/articles/herbal-medicines-possible-risks-andbenefits.pdf,https://www.ncbinlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3170500/pdf/nihms307509.pdf). They also exert digestive stimulant action of food enhancing the taste. A few medicinal properties of spices are as being a tonic, carminative, stomachic, diuretic and antispasmodic (Aboaba et al., 2011; Achi, 2006 and Adefegha et al., 2012). This has led for pharmacological applications in the indigenous systems of medicine as digestive stimulants and to relieve digestive disorders and makes the food more palatable. In many countries around the world these are grown and reared for the purpose of trade and distribution. In the ancient times the spice merchants have been the most popular traders. India is well known for spices with a wide variety of recipes that are laced with them.

1. INTRODUCTION

Admitably except for water and milk, no other beverage has earned such universal acceptance and esteem throughout the ages as wine. The aesthetic postures of wine can be gauged by the quotations like ‘wine is the most healthful and the most hygienic beverage (Louis Pasteur)’, ‘wine is a chemical symphony (Amerine). Man has been preparing and consuming since time immemorial a large variety of alcoholic beverages, ranging from mild stimulants to highly intoxicants liquors. Amongst the mild stimulants are the wines which have long association with human artistic, cultural and religious activities.

Grapes and wines are of immense importance to us and their sheer magnitude of production and associated investment, employment, enjoyment, tax revenue collected and the economic contribution is a justifiable. These play a major role in economics of major wine producing countries like Italy and France. Wine and brandy refer to the fermented by-products of grapes, member of genus Vitis notably the cultivars of V.vinifera L. as per the European definition. However, here these terms may also refer to the fermented by-products from any fleshy fruit or flower. Compared to the grapes, industry producing wine from other fruits is very small. Do these have any role to play especially in nutrition, health and economy of the horticulturally developed countries or are simply mild intoxicants consumed? Such queries at one or the other time may baffle the thinking of an inquisive reader. An attempt has been made here to discuss briefly the historical aspects, role of wine in the context of nutritive and therapeutic value, present status of Indian Wine Industry, research status and future strategies. Emphasis on its role in developing the horticultural industry would also be laid.

India is a second largest producer of fruits and vegetables after China. These share are 10% and 16% respectively in total world production. Horticulture crops occupy 23.548 million ha and production is estimated around 260.063 million tones. Total area of fruits, vegetable, plantation crops, spices, loose flower and aromatic plant are 7012, 9083, 3606, 3092, 218 and 537 thousand ha, respectively and production are 79400, 156445, 16388, 5786, 1421 and 622 thousand tones, respectively with productivity are11.32, 17.22, 4.54, 1.87, 6.59, 1.19 thousand tones per ha, respectively (2012-2013). The total productions of cut flowers are 74305 Lakh stem (2012-2013). The annual horticulture export volume is 2733145 metric tonnes (2010-2011) with total exported value of Rs 696461 lakh. In terms of volume, fresh fruits & vegetables comprised about 76 % of exported horticulture produce followed by processed fruits & vegetables (23 %) and floriculture & seeds (1%). After that losses found 20-30 % in fruit and 30-40 % in vegetable while harvesting to consumption in India. It’s due to the perishable nature of horticulture commodity, non availability of appropriate post harvest infrastructure transportation, inadequacy of the market or lack of processing.

India is a major horticulture producer, even though processing is less than 2 %. This is very low as compare to 80 % of Malaysia, 78 % of Philippine, 70 % of Brazil and 30 % of Thailand. The most of developed country 40-60 % fruits and vegetables utilize in processing.

Proper handling, packaging, transportation and storage reduce the post harvest losses of fruits and vegetables. For every one percent reduction in loss will save 5 million tons of fruit and vegetable per year. Processing and preservation technology helps to save excess fruit and vegetable during the glut season. The technology has become a necessity to improve the food safety and strengthen nations food security. The technology helps to boost export of agricultural commodities in the form of preserved and value added products.

    1.    Control points are the points in the food processing chain where it is possible to control or remove hazards.

    2.    Critical control points are the control points in the processing chain where it is essential to a hazard, usually because there is no later step at which to establish control.

    3.    Preventative measures are the actions and activities needed to remove hazards or control them by reducing them to acceptable levels.

    4.    Critical limits for critical control points are measurements such as temperature and time, that must be met, or characteristics such as appearance and texture. Critical limits need to be validated.

    5.    Monitoring is the regular measurement or observation of a critical control point to ensure it is not beyond its critical limits.

    6.    Take corrective action to bring the process back under control before the problem (‘deviation’) leads to a safety hazard. Consider proper management (disposition) of any adversely affected product.

    7.    Verification procedures are tests and programmes that make sure the HACCP system working properly

    8.    Record keeping and documentation systems must meet the needs of the business and be adequate to show that the food safety programme is working.

Pineapple i.e. Ananas comosus (L.) Mer. belongs to the Bromeliaceae family, which has around 46 genera and 1700 species, mainly cultivated in the tropical and sub- tropical regions. It is ranked third in production of tropical fruit after banana and citrus. The pineapple market has been growing extensively due to the attractive aroma compounds and nutritional values as well as huge demand and competitive retail prices (Ali et al., 2020). But, several sanitary problems have been reported in pineapple and they are considered as the main constraints for low yield of that crop in several producing areas. Significant yield losses have been caused by infestation of different pests like mealy bug, fruit borer, mites, scale insects, as well as with different nematode species (Pires de Matos, 2017). The crop lifecycle phases, soil, climatic variables and crop management practices influence the pest infestation intensity. In order to prevent severe crop losses, an integrated approach comprising prophylactic, biological, cultural, mechanical and need-based chemical steps is most appropriate for controlling pineapple pests and maintaining their population below the threshold level. This chapter deals with globally important pests of pineapple with their nature of damages and effective control measures in depth.

Abstract

Sunflower seeds of variety PSFH- 67 were obtained from the PAU seed farm. These seeds were cleaned with commonly used seed processing equipment. Samples were divided into 2 parts. One part was kept as such for taking the observations of feed (control) and the remaining part was passed through specific gravity separator for its refinement. The various fractions obtained were recovery (heavier, healthy seeds), middlings (intermediate, under size) and rejections (lightweight seeds, wevil eaten, foreign matter). The respective percentages of each fraction were computed. These graded fractions as well as the feed were packed in 2-kg cloth bags and stored under ambient conditions. Different quality parameters viz. moisture content, physical purity, percent germination, thousand grain weight and vigour index were recorded at 30 days interval from Jan, 2010 to Apr. 2010. The physical purity, moisture content, thousand grain weight, percent germination, root length, shoot length and vigour index were found to be higher in recovery and minimum for rejections while moisture content was highest for rejection compared to all other fractions. The physical purity remained more or less constant throughout the period of storage. The thousand-grain weight showed a rapid decrease during first month thereafter it remained constant. There was continuous decrease in percent germination with the period of storage irrespective of the treatment.

1. INTRODUCTION

India is principally an agricultural country with seventy per cent of its population living in villages and fifty nine per cent of the total work force dependent on agriculture for its daily bread. Almost 20% of the gross GDP is contributed by agriculture. A steep surge in production since late 1960s has made country self-reliant in food grain production with buffer stocks full to the brim. Since independence, 0.66% growth/ year in gross agricultural area combined with 2.67%/year increases in food grain production led to a net increase in per capita food grain availability from 395 g/ day to 475 g/ day. An outstanding achievement, as it happened despite an unabated population build up at a rate of 2.15 %/ year or 13 million more mouths to be fed every year. Not only in food grain production, the country has made revolutionary progress in milk, fish, eggs, fruits and vegetable production also (NAAS, 2004).

Needless to say that the economic growth of our country depends largely on the prosperity of the agriculture. The agricultural sector acts as a bulwark in maintaining food security as well as national security. The first and the foremost role of agricultural is its promotion of economic progress in the country by enlarging the savings of the rural sector and making them available for the development of industries. Gandhiji, the father of the nation called “Agriculture as the soul of India”. Also, agriculture has been termed as “The mother of all industries and the maintainer of human life standing at the need of all sciences and arts, indeed, at the head of civilization and progress”. The significance of agriculture in India arises also from the fact that the development in agriculture is an essential condition for the development of the national economy. Thus any change in the agriculture sector- positive or negative- has a multiplier effect on the entire economy (Rekha & Rangappa, 2010).

Over 70 years ago, Mahatma Gandhi made the following observations while addressing youth who wanted to serve rural India:

‘The fact is that the villagers have lost all hope. They suspect that every stranger’s hand is at their throats and that he goes to them only to exploit them. The divorce between intellect and labour has paralyzed our agriculture. The worker should enter a village full of love and hope, feeling sure that where men and women labour unintelligently and remain unemployed half the year around, he working all the year round and combining labour with intelligence cannot fail to win the confidence of the villagers’.

This message is as relevant today as it was 60 years ago. Integrating brain and brawn in farm enterprises should hence be the purpose of agricultural education. (ICAR, 1997)

Abstract

India has got a pool of medicinal herbs which are proved to be beneficial in curing various diseases. Their regular consumption not only will improve the health status but also reduce risk of lifestyle diseases. Though simple solutions, associated colloids, suspensions and emulsions are some of the traditional techniques for encapsulating functional agents, micro-encapsulation techniques is the most successfully employed technique for the controlled release of sensitive bioactive compounds. Owing to the targeted delivery of functional components directly to the human gut system, emulsion based delivery system are getting more attention now-a-days. With advancement in science, more complex and novel structures can be created which can successfully deliver these nutraceutical and bioactive ingredients into existing food systems. The technological interventions in emulsion science have opened great opportunities to improve the delivery of bioactive herbal components into milk and milk products. Various milk and milk products functionality can be improved in this way which will improve the gut- microflora within short period of time after consumption.

Incentives are a powerful stimulus to transfer of technology. They can encourage researchers to get their results to market, a new career path for many of them. They can create a culture that attracts and retains entrepreneurial staff, scientists, students and technology transfer professionals (TTPs) that view the university as a career path and a vehicle for making a contribution to society. Working in a pro-entrepreneurship team of colleagues can also lead to getting people to think in terms of making a connection between their work and its application. Incentives can be short-term or long-term in nature, and can be tailored to individual or collective requirements. As it is likely to be challenging for universities to design incentives that cater to every researcher’s or TTP’s desire, they can design incentive programs to cater to various aspects of human. Nature.
12.1 Why incentives matter in this ecosystem
Incentives can be either financial and non-financial. These are needed to ensure that researchers and TTPs remain motivated, aligned with institutional goals, and committed to the long-term process of technology transfer and commercialization. Incentive programs serve several important purposes:
• Motivation: Incentives energize individuals to pursue innovation and commercialization, often over long- and uncertain-time horizons.
• Retention: By offering recognition, rewards, and career advancement opportunities, institutions can retain high-performing researchers and skilled TTPs.
• Alignment: Well-designed incentives ensure that the personal goals of stakeholders align with institutional and societal objectives.

INTRODUCTION

Prediction of helminthic infections is impractical. The aim of any control programme must therefore, ensure that parasite populations do not exceed levels compatible with economic production. The parasitological monitoring (e. g. faecal egg counts or pasture sampling) at intervals, forecasting on the basis of meteorological data and computer simulation may provide an alternate approach to control parasitic infection (Brunsdon, R. V. , 1980) in a given geographical area. The most common gastrointestinal parasite prevalent throughout the year in Meghalaya, India is Strongyle infection. This is because of the high rainfall and humidity prevalent in the North-Eastern region.

As the prevalence of this infection is mainly dependent on rainfall and humidity, study was being initiated to identify the relationship between rainfall/temperature and strongyle infection. The study would be also helpful in predicting/ forecasting the disease occurrence based on the prevailing pattern of rainfall in a particular location.

Introduction

Soil is one of the elements required for farming and it provides nutrients to the plant. Healthy soil containing all the elements for growth and development of crop as well as heart of soil health is the integration of the soil physical, chemical, and biological process and its functions. But inorganic farming adopted over the recent years to maximize crop production has become Hazardous because in the long run deteriorating the soil health and the quality of the agricultural produces besides polluting the environment and natural resources of soil and water dangerously. Soil testing helps to recommend chemicals fertilizers more judiciously in combination with organic manures and bio fertilizers and hence balanced nutrition to crop. Soil health and fertility is the basis for sustainable profitability of the farmers. Soil testing is a science based and time-tested tool for assessment of soil fertility status and soil ailments and for nutrient amendment recommendations.

Fish as a cheap source of protein, bioavailable minerals, vitamins and essential fatty acids, ensures global nutritional security. India witnessed around 14-fold increment in fish production from 0.7 million tonnes in 1950’s to 10.43 million tonnes in 2014-15. With a contribution of 5.05% to world’s capture production and 6.6% of total aquaculture fish production, India emerged as one among the most progressive fish producing countries in the world. Fisheries as a major agricultural sector, constitutes 0.92% of total GDP and 5.58% of total agricultural GDP of India. With the global fish export value of 148,147 million USD, India ranked seventh position among the top fish exporters of the world. The sector is crucial in securing food supply, job opportunities, nutritional needs and earning foreign exchange for the country, cataloguing it as a sunrise sector of Indian economy.

Technological developments in harvest sector

Introduction of new materials for fishing gears, mechanization of fishing crafts and modern electronic technologies for navigation and fish location, paved way for the significant increase in fish production in India over the years. ICAR-CIFT, Cochin has been involved in the design and optimization of a range of crafts and gears since its inception, which gave a major fillip to the harvest sector of Indian fisheries. Considering the plateauing/decline in catches perceptible since last two decades, ICAR-CIFT has shifted its focus from increasing production to responsible harvest of resources. As a result a large number of technologies for sustainable harvest and green technologies with reduced emissions were developed.

On different occasions I have expressed my views on hunger and food security. Here are some of the views published earlier.

1. Food Security bill: Why it is an opportunity lost

Several years ago I and Dr M S Swaminathan were speaking at a conference on hunger at Rome. Also speaking at one of the sessions was the Brazilian Minister for Zero Hunger Programme, the dream programme of ex-President LuizInácio Lula da Silva. After he had listened to us, he sat down with us to know of how India was battling hunger, specially the way India was managing its food self-sufficiency and the massive food procurement programme.

India has a population of one hundred twenty four crore plus and feeding this large a population calls for a strong FPI. The industry also assumes importance in the national economy due to the immense employment generation opportunities it offers and the export revenue it earns. Food Processing Industry (FPI) in India is a sunrise sector that has gained prominence in the recent years. Easy availability of raw materials, changing lifestyles and favourable fiscal policies has given a considerable push to the industry’s growth. FPI serves as a vital link between the agriculture and manufacturing sectors of the economy. Strengthening this link is critical to reduce wastage of agricultural raw materials, improve the value of agricultural produce by increasing shelf-life as well as by fortifying the nutritive value of the food products and ensure remunerative prices to farmers as well as affordable prices to consumers. The industry has very low processing level i.e., 2.2% for fruits and vegetables, around 35% in milk, 21% in meat and 6% in poultry products, which is significantly lower by international standards. For e.g., processing of agriculture produce is around 40% in China, 30% in Thailand, 70% in Brazil, 78% in the Philippines and 80% in Malaysia. Value addition to agriculture produce in India is just 20% with wastage estimated to be valued at around US $13 billion.

India has the second largest producer of food with arable land of 159.65 million hectares and has the highest acreage under irrigation. Next to China, India ranks second largest food producer in the world and has the potential to immerge the biggest with its food and agricultural sector. India accounts for less than 1.5% of international food trade despite being one of the world’s major food producers, which indicates huge potential for both investors and exporters. Food and food products are the biggest consumption category in India

Abstract

There is an urgent need to – create market driven linkages rather than do it alone by building new infrastructure. A lot needs to be done to improve infrastructure in terms of reducing the logistics cost, eliminating middlemen influence and eliminating the wastage of basic inputs. There is a need to blend technologies based on principle of dovetailing production for masses with the advantage of mass production, particularly in the area of grain processing, packaging and marketing which would help combine livelihood, security with agricultural competitiveness. Risk in crop production is not new to any age and the farmers have been bearing it since times immemorial. The farmers should be allowed to maximize their grain. High performance continuous and batch dryers remove moisture in a way that is predictable and reliable. The problems associated with moisture content may be harmful to international trade in grain and need to be addressed adequately by the standardization institutions.

Abstracts

About 60-70% of total food grain production is retained and stored by farmers for household consumption, use as seed, feed for cattle and payment of wages to labours etc. in our country. Yet the quality of grains stored is not so good, and hence, preserving the harvested crops without loss or damage has always been a problem of national importance. This study was conducted in Jabalpur district of Madhya Pradesh state. A tribal block namely Kundam was selected for study purpose. The responses of 120 women were recorded in pre-tested structural schedule through interview. Rural women are an important source of information on the use of indigenous practices for grain storage. The data reveals that the majority of respondents are using dry leaves of Neem, dry onion bulb, wheat straw, Nirgudi leaves, roots of bach etc. for storage of grain at household level. In our country, indigenous practices of grain storage have always been and are still followed, because it is supposed that these practices are useful in control of grain loss.