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India is the largest producer of pulses and contributes around 25% of total global pulse production. In addition, it is also world’s biggest consumer (27% of world consumption) and importer (14%) of pulses in the world. Pulses account for around 20 per cent of the area under food grains and contribute around 7-10 per cent of the total food grains production in India. Though, pulses are grown in both Kharif and Rabi seasons, Rabi pulses contribute more than 60 per cent of the total production. Gram is the most dominant pulse having a share of around 40 per cent in the total production followed by tur/arhar at 15 to 20 per cent and urad and moong at around 8-10 per cent each. Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh and Karnataka are the top five pulses producing states in India. Considering the nutritional importance of pulses and its products in Indian diet, the production and availability are not sufficient. Since independence, grain production has grown dramatically but pulses production and its availability have declined. On the other hand, the per capita availability of cereal and millets has increased in spite of a four-fold increase in population. The consumption ratio of cereal-to-pulse has risen from 6:1 to 12:1.

Pulse processing is the major need of developing nations as it is the most acceptable and cheap source of protein and hence can help combating Protein Energy Malnutrition (PEM). In addition, the identification and recognition of various newer and improved processing methods can provide the basis for further development of legume processing industry. Traditionally, home cooking is applied for consumption of pulses since ages. Modernization has no doubt created a lot of ease and developed various techniques to make different edible forms of legumes/pulses. Many advancements have been happened in traditional processing methods (milling, fermentation, roasting, boiling, steaming etc). and resulted into new products. Improved techniques for efficient milling of legumes into dhal (dehusked splits) are an important area of investigation. A systematic method that eliminates wastes and losses has great significance in the Indian dietary pattern. New systems for processing legumes come under several main categories, namely, improved decortications and milling techniques; quick-cooking pulses; canned pulses; pulse flakes, expanded snack foods etc. Such new and innovative processing technologies presented in this chapter can be applied and used in developing nations. Present chapter will discuss both traditional and non-traditional means of pulse processing.

Introduction

Food processing comprise of techniques employed to transform raw ingredients into final food product or to preserve the food product. Food processing industry as well as at domestic scale the food processing methods aim at providing processed food products for daily consumption by humans and animals. Food processing aims at increasing the shelf life, preserve, make nutritious or ready to eat foods, and getting the best quality final products. There are various techniques and methods which come under food processing such as drying, dehydration, fermentation, pickling, freezing, mixing, pumping, pasteurization, cooking and homogenization etc.

Rheological properties of foods are greatly influenced by various unit operations and processing methods or conditions such as heating and mechanical treatments. Processing of different food products such as dairy, fruit and vegetable products like jams and purees, chocolates, dough development etc. and basic make up of foods such as fats, proteins and others such as emulsifiers, hydrocolloids etc. affects the rheological properties of food product and which ultimately affects the quality of end product. Apart from processing conditions the compositional variations have a great impact on the textural or rheological properties of foods. The changes in rheological characteristics of a food product reflects the alterations in the molecular structure of the food material, this can aid in revealing the changes in product structure during different processing methods or conditions. In designing of various processes such as cooling, freezing and equipment design information about thermal properties is crucial. Moreover, in order to design storage structures for foods and refrigeration equipment the knowledge of thermal properties is important (Becker et al. 2003).

For rheological measurements various tests and techniques are available, such as steady and dynamic shear measurements. From the steady shear properties flow properties of the sample can be revealed whether the flow is Newtonian or Non Newtonian. In case of dynamic shear rheological properties information on viscoelastic characteristics can be withdrawn in terms of storage and loss modulus and depending on the predominance of each modulus the nature of sample can be predicted i.e. whether viscoelastic solid or viscoelastic fluid (Bhardwaj et al. 2019). Apart from these measurements, other rheological measurements are available for specific food materials, such as farinograph, alveo-consistograph, mixograph etc. are meant for study of rheological properties of dough. So, accordingly, depending upon the food material choice of rheological measurement can be made. To study the thermal transitions DSC (Differential scanning calorimeter) and DTA (Differential thermal analysis) are commonly employed. Dynamic measurements as a function of temperature or time are made in these techniques to detect the endothermal and exothermal changes. These techniques can be used to determine the phase transitions in various foods, for instance, crystallization and melting of water, lipids and other food components; denaturation of protein; gelatinization of starch and others (Roos 2015).

Advancements on sugar processing

India has popped out as one of the largest sugar processing country throughout the world. Through the collaboration of research and development carried out in the field of sugar processing, this industry has witnessed the vast changes in term of technology. Important considerations such as productivity improvement and cost reduction were the main objectives in the field of sugar processing. Sulphur dioxide was earlier used but afterwards lime treatment in clarified juice helped in the processing of white sugar from sugar cane. Since then the continuous progress and improvement has been made and advanced techniques are introduced for manufacturing of sugar with modern tools.

Ramjeawon (2004) reported that farmers and agriculture workers grow sugar cane and beet root for sugar production,providing about 20 kg per capita and that is equivalent to almost 13 percent energy requirement. Fechter et al. (2001) reported that production of the white sugar was focused more on juices rather than molasses which were taken as the raw material. Various processes such as ultra-filtration, de-mineralization and de-colorization were used for the production of white sugar. The traditional refining process wascheaper, and effective in terms of purification and juice purification was the method used for the processing of white sugar directly from the sugar cane. Crystallization was one of the process which is used for increasing the recovery of sucrose and it reduces the molasses production. Chromatography was used in the sugar industry for the separation of sucrose. Another method was ion exchange demineralization which was used in the sugar industry for the removal of minerals from the liquid sugar. Later adsorption has been incorporated to be used de-odorization and de-pigmentation. Membrane filtration is latest technique used in the process which was used for maintaining the quality of white sugar by removing unwanted particle from the juice. Velásquez et al.,(2018) reported that thermal processes are also used for the production of sugar from sugar cane. Non centrifugal cane sugar processing is used for this purpose and the product is obtained by evaporating the sugarcane which has the unique flavor and aroma. Later the product is used as the sweetener and has a traditional characteristics flavor and optimum nutrition.

Introduction

Baking is not a new concept to us. Baking process dates thousand years back since the Paleolithic age. During those days, the baking was done by simply grinding the grains, mixed with water and baked on the hot rocks. The bread produced that time was not leavened but flat. Ancient Egyptians have the credit for development of baking between 2600-1200 BC. Roman Empire also had the popularity of the art of baking and bakeries were in existence in Europe too during Middle Age. Baking was considered a highly respected profession under the Roman Empire. The art of baking has travelled a long journey since then. The bakery and confectionary has undergone a gradual evolution with time. Great technical progress stared in the nineteenth century. Development of automatic machines reduced the task of the manual labour and because of this development the bakers could perform many more tasks with the machines. Today’s baking has a dependency on the machines. All the work is performed by the automated machines whereas the bakers only control the machine operations. The baking process has become easier, the efficiency has increased and the quality of the products has improved because of these high-tech machines. The preparation of bakery products using traditional methods has also improved over the time to minimize the energy and time consumption. Today’s consumer is very much concerned about his/her health and look for the healthy options in baked products. The trend has led to various innovative formulations for the baked products so that the health benefits may also be provided not only the calories. This chapter will discuss various advancements and trends in different types of bakery and confectionary products.

Introduction

Food is the basis to sustain a healthy life as evidenced from its consumption through centuries by human. There are plenty of plenty of foodstuffs available these days as part of new product development and flexible global participation of researchers and food technocrats. Their researches brings a lot reforms in traditional recipes through newest technological concepts (functional or nutraceutical) that address much of safety aspect for consumers health and is the prime focused concern for now (Keservani, et al 2014). Even than strict labeling policies is the present hour need to stay fit and fine. Safe and wholesome supply of foods, high pace food demands, increase in processing aspect, minimization of fraudulent practices are the key points that somehow require laws and standards during transportation, storage, marketing and storage.

Nation’s growth resides in their healthy people that contribute flawless to acquire achievements in overall growth of country. So availability of healthy food is must which can only be governed through strict standards and regulatory agency’s regulation. Journey of food from “Production to consumption”, “Farm to fork”, “Unstable to table” and “Boat to throat” are the activities where these agencies abide their regulations by way of laws and standards. Indian market somehow lacking its policy to organize food regulation appropriately hence is segmented in two types of food products viz;

Over the past several years, there has been significant change in consumer perception on quality and food safety. Consumers are demanding healthy, nutritious and cost-effective products processed under controlled hygienic conditions. Food safety concern, in recent years, has become dominant and important. The requirement of food safety and quality assurance has never been so demanding as it is now. Globally food safety is being addressed independent of food quality. In anticipation of consumer demands on food safety, food sanitary standards at national and international levels are under constant review. Several inter governmental agencies / organizations are engaged in work related to quality assurance and food safety. Amongst these World Health Organization (WHO) and Codex Alimentarius Commission (CAC) play the major role in protecting public health and defining standards of quality and safety aspects of foods for regional and or world wide usage.

Regulatory Institutions

The quality environment in the Indian food processing sector revolves around compulsory legislation which specify minimum standard and certification system. Legal standards are generally made to have control over the quality of foods offered for sale and to safeguard the consumer from health hazards posed by practice of adulteration. There are basically three types of Indian standards namely

The growing chemicalization of milk presents a great challenge to the dairy industry. A number of chemical compounds get entry into milk, intentionally or un-intentionally, through their direct or indirect usage for crop, animal; or dairy husbandry practices, as environmental contamination. Several of these contaminants may be naturally present on grazing grass or use as pesticides for green fodder or they may get entry through use of compounded animal feeds. These eventually get excreted into milk as residues and pose problems to food safety. The risk of health hazards arises from veterinary drugs, residual pesticides, heavy metals, detergents and micotoxins etc. It is therefore, become necessary to detect these contaminants in order to make food safe for human consumption.

Detection of Aflatoxin M 1 in Milk

Material requirements : Glass column(30 cm x 1 cm), Silica gel (63-200 µg particle size), volumetric flasks, beakers, micro pipette, HPLC equipment fitted with C 18 column(25 cm x 4.6 mm) and fluorescence detector.

Reagents: Sodium chloride solution (400g in 1000ml water), acetonitrile/water mixture (25:75), sodium sulphsate, chloroform, toluene/acetic acid mixture (9:1), acetonitrile/diethyle ether/hexane mixture (1:3:6), chloroform/acetone mixture (8:2), n-hexane and aflatoxin standard ampule.

Preparation of stock solution : Transfer contents from 2.5ml or 0.5ml ampoule, quantitatively, to 25ml or 50ml volumetric flask respectively. Rinse ampoule with small quantities of chloroform and collect rinsing into flask. Makeup the volume with chloroform, mix well and store at 5º C or below. These solutions will contain 1 µg per ml aflatoxin M1.

Working solution : Transfer 0.5ml of stock solution to a 10ml conical flask. Evaporate contents to dryness using inert gas. Dissolve residue in 10ml of acetonitrile/water mixture. Prepare series of dilutions containing 0.0025, 0.005, 0.01 and 0.025 µg/ml aflatoxin. Similarly treat 5ml of stock solution to give a concentration of 0.5 µg/ml.

India has emerged as the largest producer of milk in the World. This has boosted the confidence of producers, planners, dairy entrepreneurs and scientist alike. India has poised to play a major role in global dairy market in coming decade. The rapid growth of science and technology has positive impact on our life style and with strong trend of urbanization several demographic changes are likely to occur. There going to be ever increasing demand on the role of milk and milk products for human health. Accordingly, the demand for higher standards of milk products in terms of hygiene and safety of dairy products is to be followed. The competitiveness for the export of milk products among different dairy industry has increased in recent times due to GATT agreement. The biggest challenge before Indian dairy industry is the quality and safety of milk products indented for human consumption. Legal standards are made to have control over quality of food offered for sale and to safe guard the consumer form health hazards. It is therefore, imperative to determine different parameters that define product quality and safety. The purpose is to ensure production and distribution of products within well defined and accepted standards. This chapter deals with various parameters of product testing in order to maintain requisite prescribed standards.

A. Estimation of Calcium

Requirements : Pottasium permanganate solution (0.1N) – Dissolve by heating 33g of potassium permanganate in 1000ml distilled water and allow to stand in coloured bottle for several days. Filter contents through 6mm thick film of asbestos mat on Gooch crucible.

Asbestos mat – Digest asbestos with dilute hydrochloric acid(1:3) for 2-3 days, wash free from acid and digest with 10% sodium hydroxide for few days, wash free from alkali. Digest with dilute Nitric acid(1:3) for several hours and wash. Shake with water into fine pulp and digest with 0.1N potassium permanganate solution that has been acidified with dilute sulphuric acid (1:3), for 1 hour and wash. Use this pulp for layering 6mm film on Gooch crucible.

Dilute hydrochloric acid (1:4), Ammonium hydroxide solution (1:1), Saturated ammonium oxalate solution, Diluted sulphuric acid (1:4)

In the last decade or so, the problem of determining the microbial content and their activities in dairy products has been under close scrutiny. The dairy industries still adopt the dye reduction test because it is cheap, simple and satisfactory. However, other new techniques have been introduced along with some modifications in traditional tests. The microbiological quality must be maintained. To assess the bacterial content and their activities in dairy products, various methods are available for the microbiological testing of milk. The specific tests should be chosen as per the application and other factors like cost etc. On the basis of public health and economic consideration it is necessary to test microbiological quality of milk at a number of points along the chain from producer to consumer which includes - raw milk supply, bulk milk arriving at processors premises, monitoring bulk milk during storage prior to processing and monitoring the procession & the quality control of finished products. The techniques for estimating bacterial numbers in raw material are divided into two categories.

Laboratory Tests

Sampling procedures

Samples from number of containers- As soon as the cans are received at the reception dock, remove the lid, mix contents of each can with a plunger and draw equal quantities from each container and mix together. Draw approximately 80 – 100 ml of sample for testing. If the cans are of same diameter, Alternatively, milk from different containers are first poured into a vat and then the sample is drawn by thorough mixing as above..

Samples from storage tank – Before drawing sample from storage tank, switch on the mechanical agitator and allow the contents to mix for 15-20 minutes. Discard first 1.0 L of milk. Transfer 250-500 ml of the mixed milk from the outlet valve into a sample bottle.

Samples from rail / road tankers- Open the lid of the tanker and insert a big plunger through the main hole and move it forward, downward and backward bring the plunger to the surface at each stroke. Continue mixing for 15-20 minutes. Draw proportionate quantities of sample with the help of suitable dipper from different levels. Draw 250-500 ml of well-mixed sample into the sample bottle. The total volume of individual composite sample should not be less than 150 ml.

Milk is a product of biological origin and is a suitable vehicle to accommodate any additive without apparent changes in its look. The quality of milk and its products depends upon quality of raw milk used in their manufacture, processing and handling conditions. It is therefore, necessary to check quality of raw milk to assess its suitability for processing, through various quick tests called “Platform Tests”

Raw milk quality assessment

(A) At collection center: - Milk from various suppliers is generally collected at dairy factory or privately owned collection centers located in marked area of milk sheds. The quantum of supply may vary from 2 – 100 Liters. As each supplier has to be paid in relation to quantity and quality of his produce, it is important to draw samples and ascertain its quality by performing quick tests for the purpose of acceptance or rejection.

Sampling procedures - The sampling procedure differs according to the nature of material and the purpose for which the sample is required. The sample collected for chemical analysis should be representative of the entire batch. Thorough mixing with proper instrument is essential to ensure representative sample. Samples for chemical analysis are to be delivered the same day for testing. If un-avoided, add small amount of preservative (Formaldehyde) to prevent deterioration and bear label to the effect.

Sample from single container – The procedure involved is thorough mixing of contents. If it is small container the contents should be poured from one vessel to another with swirling. In case of can the contents should be mixed with the help of plunger which should be moved up and down and sideways for about 10-15 times. The sample is then drawn with the help of dipper from different levels and collected in clean and dry sample bottles.

Leafy vegetables are rich sources of provitamin-A, vitamin C and minerals like calcium, magnesium, iron, etc., They are the riches sources of roughes or fibres essential in human diet. The ICMR recommended dietary allowances of green leafy vegetables for adult women is 100g/day and men are 40g/day while for school children above 10 years it is 50g/day. Greens are rich in vitamins and minerals essential for healthy functioning of organs of body. Amaranth, beet leaf, spinach, fenugreek, etc., are the major leaf vegetables grown in India. In addition, a number of under-utilized annual crops are also grown as leaf vegetables in specific regions. Tender stems and leaves of a number of perennial crops are rich sources of vitamins and minerals and are used for cooking.

10.1. Amaranth (Amaranthus sp)

Amaranth is the most common leaf vegetable grown in India. Amarnath is an annual herb with erect growth and scarce to profusely branching habit. Stem is succulent and green or purple or mixed shades of these two. There are two sections in Amaranthus, viz., Amaranthus and Blitopsis. Majority of leaf cultivars grown in India belong to Amaranthus tricolor. Among the several kinds of greens Amaranthus occupy a special place because it has a large number of species grown in one or the other part of country.

Some of the important improved varieties released are CO-2 and CO-5 from TNAU, Coimbatore, Pusa Kiran, Pusa Kirti and Pusa Lal Choulia from IARI, New Delhi, Arka Arunima and Arka Suguna from IIHR, Bangalore. Amaranth are popular all over India by different names. While in northern parts it is popularly known as choulia, in south it is popularly called as keerai or cheera or koora or soppa. The general composition of amaranth is given below:

9.1. Onion (Allium cepa L.)

The onion (Allium cepa), which is also known as the bulb onion, or common onion is the most widely cultivated species of the genus Allium. It has been used as food since time immemorial and is an important vegetable all over the world. The genus Allium also contains a number of other species variously referred to as onions and cultivated for food, such as the Japanese bunching onion (A. fistulosum), Egyptian onion (A. proliferum), and Canada onion (A. canadense). The vast majority of cultivars of A. cepa belong to the “common onion group” (A. cepa var. cepa) and are usually referred to simply as “onions”. The Aggregatum Group of cultivars (A. cepa var. aggregatum) includes both shallots and potato onions. Onion is suggested to have been originated in Asia, particularly Pakistan and Iran.

China is the largest onion producer in the world followed by India. Largest area under onion is in India followed by China. The major onion producing state are Maharashtra, Karnataka, Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan, Gujarat, Bihar, Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu and Orissa.

Cultivars/Varieites: Onion varieties differ in size, colour of skin, pungency and maturation. The most popular varieties under cultivation are Agrifound Dark Red, Agrifound Light Red, Agrifound Red, Agrifound Rose, Arka Bindu, Arka Kalyan, Arka Niketan, Arka Pragati, Baswant 780, Brown Spanish, Co-1, Co-2 Co- 3, Co-4, Early Grano, Hisar II, Kalyanpur Red Round, MDU 1 N-2-4-1, N-53, N-257-9-1, Punjab 48 (S 48), Pusa Madhavi, Punjab Red Round, Punjab Selection, Pusa Ratnar, Pusa Red, Pusa White Flat, Pusa White Round, Udaipur 101, 102 & 103.

Leguminous vegetables include peas, French bean, Lima bean, broad bean, cowpea, hyacinth bean, winged bean etc. They belong to the family Fabaceae (Syn. Leguminosae). These are cultivated either as sole crop is sometimes as intercrop. In some areas they are used in backyard cultivation also. Most of them are short duration crops and are self pollinated.

8.1. Peas (Pisum sativum L.)

The pea (Pisum sativum L.) is a very common nutritioius vegetable grown in cool season throughout the world. It belongs to the family Fabaceae (Syn. Leguminaceae) and genus Pisum. A pea is most commonly the small spherical seed or the seedpod of the pod fruit Pisum sativum L. The pea cultivars are grouped into several groups based on shape of seed, plant height, maturity and use of pods. This crop is cultivated for its tender and immature pods for use as vegetable and mature dry pods for use as a pulse. In both the cases the seeds are separated and used as vegetable or pulse. The central Asia is regarded as the place of origin for all legumes including pea. Based on the genetic diversity, Central Asia, the Near East, Abyssinia and the Mediterranean is considered to be its centre of Origin. Cultivated garden pea is not seen in wild state and it might have been originated from wild field pea or other related species. In India it widely cultivated states of Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Haryana, Punjab, Himachal Pradesh, Orissa and Karnataka. Followed by Madhya Pradesh, Himachal Pradesh, Assam and Jharkhand.

Cultivars/Varietie: Peas varieties are grouped based on maturity (early, mid season and late) plant height (Bush or dwarf, medium tall and tall). The major cultivars under cultivation in different parts of the country are Arkel, Bonneville, Harbhajan, FC-1, Arka Ajit, UN 53-6 (whole edible type), Jawahar Matar 1, Jawahar Matar 2, Jawahar Matar 3, Jawahar Matar 4, Jawahar Matar 5, Jawahar Peas 83, JP 4 (JM 6), JP 19, Lincoin, Mattar Ageta 6, Pantnagar Matar 2, Pant Uphar (IP 3), P 88, PRS 4,Ooty-1 and VL 3.

7.1. Okra or Bhindi (Abelmoschus esculentus L.)

Okra (Bhindi) is a member of Malvaceae family, earlier known as Hibiscus esculentus, and is an annual vegetable crop grown from seeds in tropical and subtropical parts of the world. Okra, also known as “lady finger” or “gumbo”, is a highly nutritious green edible pod vegetable. Botanically, this perennial flowering plant belongs to the mallow family but is grown as an annual. It is named scientifically as Abelmoschus esculentus. Okra originated in tropical and subtropical Africa and India is suggested to be the secondary centre of origin. There are four species under Abelmoschus genus which includes both cultivated and wild forms. They are A. esculentus, A. manihot, A. caillei and A. moschatus. In India, Okra is widely cultivated in states of Andhra Pradesh, West Bengal, Orissa, Bihar Uttar Pradesh, Karnataka, Assam West Bengal, Orissa, Gujarat and Bihar.

Cultivars/Varieties: Okra varieties differ in growth habit, height of plant, presence of purple pigmentation and ridges on fruit. The popular varieties under cultivation in different parts of the country are Arka Abhay, Arka Anamika, Azad Kranti, Co 1, MDU1, Gujarat Bhindi 1, Harbhajan Bhindi, Hisar Unnat, Parbhani Kranti, Perkins Long Green, Punjab 7, Punjab 8, Punjab Padmini, Pusa A 4, Pusa Makhmali, Pusa Sawani, Red Bhindi, TN Hybrid 8 and Varsha Uphar. Besides, a number of hybride from many private sector agencies/seed companies are marketed. Of these, Varsha, Vijay, Adhunik, Panchali, Hybrid No. 6,7 and 8, Nath Sobha, Supriya, Sungro 35, Aroh 1, - 2, -3, -9 and are more popular.

Uses

Different parts of the plant are used for different purposes. Abelmoschus moschatus Medik. Leaves and seeds are considered as valuable traditional medicine. Abelmoschus moschatus is also called ‘musk okra’ a medicinal plant belonging the same family. The leaves and new shoots of this plant is also used as vegetable. The aromatic seeds of this plant are aphrodisiac, ophthalmic, cardio tonic, antispasmodic and used in the treatment of and intestinal complaints and anxiety.

6.1. Potato (Solanum tuberosum L.)

Potato, Solanum tuberosum, is a starchy, tuberous crop belonging to the Solanaceae family. The name potato originally referred to a type of sweet potato, batata, in Spanish. Potatoes are occasionally referred to as “Irish potatoes” or “white potatoes” in the United States, to distinguish them from sweet potatoes. The potato was believed to be first domesticated in the region of southern Peru and extreme northwestern Bolivia between 8000 to 5000 BC. The potato diffused widely after 1600, becoming a major food resource in Europe and East Asia. Greater geographic mobility of farmers led to the rapid spread of potato cultivation throughout China, and India. China is now the world’s largest potato producer and nearly one third of the world’s potatoes are produced in China and India.

Today potato is the fourth major food crop after rice, wheat and maize in the world. In India potato is a very important crop and are mainly produced in the states of Uttar

Cultivars/Varieties: Most of the improved potato varieties were developed by CPRI, Kufri, Shimla. Most of the earlier varieties released as clonal selections derived from foreign varieties have been replaced with high yielding new varieties from the same institute. The popular varieties under cultivation now are Kufri Sindhuri, Kufri Chandramukhi, Kufri Jyothi, Kufri Lauvkar, Kufri Muthu, Kufri Dewa, Kufri Badshah, Kufri Bahar, Kufri Lalima, Kufri Swarna, Kufri Jawahar, Kufri Ashoka, Kufri Megha, Kufri Sutlej, Kufri Pukhraj, Kufri Chipsona-1, Kufri Chipsona-2 and Kufri Giriraj.

Uses

Potatoes are used in different ways like boiled, fried, baked and roasted. Potatoes are used to brew alcoholic beverages such as vodka, potcheen, or akvavit.They are also used as food for domestic animals. Potato starch is used in the food industry as, for example, thickeners and binders of soups and sauces, in the textile industry, as adhesives, and for the manufacturing of papers and boards. Many companies are exploring the possibilities of using waste potatoes to obtain polylactic acid for use in bioplastic products; other research projects seek ways to use the starch as a base for biodegradable packaging. Potato skins, along with honey, are used in folk medicine for burns in India. Burn centers in India have experimented with the use of the thin outer skin layer to protect burns while healing. The potato is best known for its carbohydrate content, which is in the form of starch. Because of its high starch content, it is a staple food in several parts of world including in some parts of India. A small but significant portion of this starch is resistant to digestion by enzymes in the stomach and small intestine, and so reaches the large intestine essentially intact, thereby, increasing its physiological significance. Besides these the potato also provides various other nutritional constituents to the body. Potato is also processed into various products like chips, powder, pappad, savory items.

Carrot, radish, turnip and beet root are major root crops grown in India. In addition, root crops like rutabaga, parsnip, parsley, chervil and celeriac are grown in a limited scale in different parts of the world. There are several other roots and modified underground plant parts that grow in forests and consumed by tribes, but they are not commercially cultivated. Carrot, radish, turnip and beet root are generally consumed as cooked vegetables or fresh salads or as pickled vegetables.

5.1. Carrot

Carrots belong to the Umbelliferae family, named after the umbrella-like f lower clusters that plants in this family produce. As such, carrots are related to parsnips, fennel, parsley, anise, caraway, cumin and dill. Carrot, Daucus carota L. is believed have been primarily originated in Afghanistan, South western Asia and Mediterranean region. Daucus carota ssp. Carota is the most common wild form in Europe and South West Asia, and the present day cultivated carrots have most probably originated from this sub-species.

Haryana, Andhra Pradesh, Punjab and Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, Uttar Pradesh and Assam are the major producers of carrot in India.

Cultivars/Varieties: Varieties with long, orange coloured and smooth roots are preferred in India. Both indigenous and exotic varieties having different root length, shape and colour are grown. Temperate or European type varieties are Nantes, Half long, Early Nantes, Chantenay, Chaman, Pusa Yamadagni and Ooty-1, which require low temperature of 4-8°C for flowering. Tropical or Asiatic type varieties do not require low temperature for flowering and can be grown in plains also. The varieties belonging to this group are Pusa Kesar, Pusa Meghali and Hisar Gairic. Some varieties like Gold King, Indian Kuroda and Super Kuroda are also marketed by private seed companies.

In Solanaceae family there are 85 genera, which includes both tuberiferous and non-tuberiferous plants. Among the non-tuberiferous, tomato, brinjal and chilli are the important fruit vegetables.

4.1. Tomato (Lycopersicon esculentum Mill.)

Tomato has originated in Peru and Mexican region of South America. It got its name form the azetc work “Tomatl”. In India tomato is the second largest cultivated vegetable after potato. Though it is produced in almost entire country, the major producer states are Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Orissa, West Bengal, Bihar, Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh and Maharashtra.

Cultivar/Varieties: A large number of varieties/hybrids of tomatoes are under cultivation. The most popular among them are Arka Rakshak, Arka Samrat, Arka Saurabh, Arka Vikash, ARTH 3, ARTH 4, Avinash 2, BSS 90, CO3, HS 101, HS 102, HS 110. Hisar Anmol, Hisar Arun, Hisar Lalima, Hisar Lalit, Krishna, KS 2, Matri, MTH 6, NA 601, Naveen, Pusa 120, Punjab Chhuhara, Pant Bahar, Pusa Divya, Pusa Early Dwarf, Pusa Hybrid 1, Pusa Hybrid 2, Pusa Hybrid 4, Pusa Ruby, Pusa Sheetal, Pusa Uphar, Rajni, Rashmi, Ratna and Rupali.

Uses

Tomato adds richness to any dish it is added. Besides using for culinary purpose tomato is also used as salad and dressings and also as adjuvant in several locally available fresh snacks. It is used for thickening of gravies in many Indian curries. As a processed product tomato sauce and ketchup are on top of favourites. It is not only delicious in taste but also rich in its medicinal value. The pulp and juice are mild aperient, a promoter of gastric secretion and blood purifier. It is also considered to be intestinal antiseptic. It is said to be useful in sour mouth, canker of mouth and chronic dyspepsia.

Cole crops are a group of vegetables belonging to the family Brassicaceae (Syn: Cruciferae) and include cabbage, cauliflower, knoll khol, kale, Brussel sprouts, sprouting broccoli, etc. Cole crops are found spread all over Europe from the Mediterranean region, which is supposed to be the centre of origin. In the ancient Egyptian and Asian civilization, there was mention of cole crops and also by Aristotle in his writings on ‘Enquiry into plants’ there was mention about three types of coles. It is believed that it was first collected for food at the beginning of Neolithic times before being cultivated, and the cultivated forms of cabbage group like, cabbage, savoy, kales, collard, broccoli, Brussels sprouts, cauliflower and kohlrabi gradually originated from wild species through mutation, human selection and adaptation.

Among the cole crops in India cauliflower and cabbage are the two most important crops while Kohlrabi is grown very less. In India it is cultivated in states of Uttar Pradesh, Karnataka, Maharashtra, Bihar, West Bengal, Punjab and Haryana. It is also grown in milder climates in southern India like Ooty, Bangalore, etc.

3.1. Cabbage (Brassica oleracea L.f. alba)

Cabbage, Brassica oleracea Linne (Capitata Group) is a popular vegetable belonging to the family Brassicaceae (or Cruciferae) and is used as a leafy green vegetable. It is in the same genus as the turnip – Brassica rapa. Cabbage leaves often have a delicate, powdery, waxy coating called bloom. The occasionally sharp or bitter taste of cabbage is due to glucosinolate(s). Cabbages are also a good source of riboflavin.

In India cabbage is widely grown in the states of Uttar Pradesh, Orissa, Bihar, Assam, West Bengal, Maharashtra and Karnataka.

Cultivars/Varieties: Cabbage cultivars are classified on the basis of colour of head and maturity. In India white cabbage is important and these are available in pointed, round and flat shapes. Of these round cabbages are preferred. Common cabbage varieties grown are Golden Acre, Pride of India, Copenhagen Market, Red Acre, Pusa Drum Head, Pride of India, Pusa Agethi, Pusa Muktha, KGMR-1, Kateri, Hardam and Nakshatra.

Cucurbits form an important and a big group of vegetable crops cultivated extensively in this country. This group consists of a wide range of vegetables, either used as salads (cucumber) or for cooking (all the gourds) or for pickling (cucumber) or as dessert fruits (muskmelon and watermelon) or candied or preserved (ash gourd). They are of tremendous economic importance as food plants.

2.1. Ash Gourd (Benincasa hispida)

Ash gourd (Benincasa hispida L.) belongs to the family Cucurbitaceae. The winter melon, also called white gourd, ash gourd, or “fuzzy melon”, is a vine grown for its very large fruit, eaten as a vegetable when mature. It is the only member of the genus Benincasa. This is a monotypic genus and the only cultivated species is Benincasa hispida (Thunb) Cogn, commonly known as ash gourd or petha. It has a Sanskrit equivalent ‘Kooshmanda’ indicating its antiquity in India.

Originally cultivated in Southeast Asia, the ash gourd is widely grown in China, India and other parts of East Asia. The immature melon has thick white flesh that is sweet when eaten. By maturity, the fruit loses its hairs and develops a waxy coating, giving rise to the name wax gourd, and providing a long shelf life. The ash gourd is known by many other names in India regional wise like komora (Assamese), pethakaddu (Hindi), boodagumbala (Kannada), Kumbalanga (Malayalam), Kohla (Marathi), neer poosanikai (Tamil) and Boodida gummadikaya (Telugu).

Uses

Ash gourd have enormous medicinal properties as it makes a valuable place as a popular natural cure of ailments in traditional medicinal practice. Being low in calories it is an ideal vegetable for diabetic patients and good for weight control. It also acts as a good detoxifying agent.

As per Ayurveda, ash gourd is used to treat epilepsy, asthma, lung diseases, urine retention, internal haemorrhage, and cough. It is said that the fruit juice is also effective in cases of mercury poisoning and snakebite. It could also treat mouth cancer, protecting teeth and gums when a mouth gargle of the juice is done regularly. It is also effective in bleeding of gums. Ash gourd is easily digestible and keeps the body cool. It is a natural blood purifier.

Vegetables are important accompaniments for the main course of meal, which is by and large a carbohydrate-based food (wheat, rice or millets). It not only makes the meal more palatable, but also wholesome with its diverse color, smell and taste. More importantly it facilitates the easy movement of food through the bowel, better absorption by the body and till the elimination. Besides hunger satiation, it helps to maintain the health by providing the essential micronutrients and prevent lifestyle disorders.

As a nutritious food, it provides the vitamins, minerals and phyto-chemicals which are required in small quantities for physiological processes and metabolic activities. They are cheap sources of beta-carotene, vitamin-B complex, folic acid, vitamin C, vitamin E, etc. They are rich in minerals like iron, calcium, magnesium, phosphorus, etc., and dietary fibres. It has now been proved that minerals are better absorbed by the body in presence of several other factors of plant matrix, than as mineral supplements. It also provides small amounts of carbohydrates and proteins. Vegetables are important as protective foods as their consumption prevents many diseases. They are important sources of antioxidants and phytochemicals. Each vegetable has been found to have certain specific phyto-chemical which besides being a free radical scavenger, is also inhibitor of certain conditions responsible for disease development.

Among the vegetables, tubers like cassava, potato and sweet potato being highly rich in carbohydrates, served as staples for several countries for very long time, in the history. For the same reason, there are a variety of food products based on these tubers. Others like carrot, radish, beetroot, and turnip in root vegetables, onion and garlic among bulbous crops; tomato, brinjal (egg plant), okra and capsicum among fruit vegetables serve as sources of phytochemicals (carotenoids, anthcyanins, lycopene, betalain, capsicum, bassiniloids, etc.). Beans, peas, cowpea, and other leguminous vegetables are important sources of proteins and leafy vegetables (greens) contribute to the much-needed minerals, vitamins and fibre (roughages) in the diet. Allicin and diallyl disulphide found in onion and garlic control blood cholesterol besides being anti-bacterial. The diphenylamine in onion is effective against diabetes. The ‘Charantin’ found in bitter gourd have hypoglycaemic activity. Diosgenin in yams are used for manufacture of contraceptive drugs. Cole crops like cabbage, cauliflower, Brussel sprouts and sprouting broccoli have anti-carcinogenic properties mainly due to hydrolysed glucosinolate derived isothiocynates and indoles. Similarly, health benefits and curative properties of many indigenous and exotic vegetables have been mentioned in several classical texts of India and China.

Tamarind (Tamarindus indicus L.) belongs to the family Fabaceae. Genus Tamarindus is a monotypic taxon having only one species. Tamarind is native to tropical Africa, probably Sudan, where it grows wild and is cultivated throughout South-East Asia and America. It is also found growing in Camaroon, Nigeria and Tanzania. Tamarind has a long gestation period of 10-20 years and long-life span of even 100 years.

Cultivars/Varieties: In some regions the type with reddish flesh is distinguished from the ordinary brown-fleshed type and regarded as superior in quality. There are types of tamarinds that are sweeter. One in Thailand is known as ‘Makham waan’. Another one is known as ‘Manila Sweet’. No other improved or named varieties are available.

Uses

Tamarind pulp is an important condiment as a sour ingredient in the Indian cuisine. Pulp has an excellent keeping quality. Timber is used for making agricultural implements. The wood yields excellent charcoal and is used for making gunpowder. Starch is obtained from seeds and is used in the textile industry. Seeds can be fed to animal after roasting and removing the outer skin. Seed is also a good source of tanning. Oil is obtained from seeds and is used in paints and varnishes. Leaves and flowers are also edible. It is rich in medicinal properties. Fruits is considered as digestive, carminative and laxative. With the addition of water and sugar, tamarind yields a cool drink which is quite popular in Latin America.Today India is the largest producer of tamarind in the world.

Fragaria is a genus of flowering plants in the rose family, Rosaceae, commonly known as strawberries for their edible fruits. It is a low perennial creeping herb which is widely grown in temperate and subtropical regions of the world.

There are more than 20 described species and many hybrids and cultivars. Cultivated strawberries are based on two species, Fragaria chiloensis (L) Duch., native to the west coast of North America and Fragaria virginia Duch., native to eastern coast of North America. Hybrids of these two species are ancestors to all the modern strawberries. The most common strawberries grown commercially are cultivars of the garden strawberry, a hybrid known as Fragaria × ananassa. Strawberries have a taste that varies by cultivar, and ranges from quite sweet to rather tart. Strawberries are an important commercial fruit crop, widely grown in all temperate regions of the world.

The major producers of strawberries are USA, Mexico, Poland, Japan, Italy, Israel, Australia, New Zealand and Turkey. In India it was introduced during 1960’s and is grown to a limited extent in Jammu & Kashmir and Himachal Pradesh and some parts of southern India (Karnataka and Ooty).

Cultivars/Varieites: Tioga, Tufts, Surecrop, Fresno, Toro, Heidi, Hood, Northwest, Puget Beauty, Olympus, Ozark Beauty.

Soursop, Annona muricata L., also called as Bullock’s heart, is a larger fruit than custard apple. The flesh is spinny and has a white fibrous flesh in which large black seeds are embedded. It is completely tropical in habitat. It resembles small jackfruit with spines on the surface. Soursop is native to the West Indies. It is very popular in Cuba and Mexico. It is found in India and many other parts of Polynesia.

Uses

Soursop is used for the preparation of sherbet and other refreshing drinks. In Indonesia, the tender fruit is used as a vegetable. Seeds have insecticidal properties and leaves contain an essential oil. Excellent jelly can be prepared from soursop fruit. Unripe fruit powder is prescribed for chronic dysentery. Buds and flowers are considered to be an excellent remedy for cough. Soursop is used as an astringent and also as a blood complement. It has the use as an antidysentric and vermifuge. A black dye is produced from the dye unripe fruit. Seed oil is used as an insecticide and for making agriculture implement. Essential oils extracted from soursop (pulp) have industrial applications and the oils are also thought to improve the flavour of processed fruit products.

Sapota is a hardy, evergreen small tree belonging to the family Sapotaceae. It is known botanically as Manilkara zapota van Royen (syns. M. achras Fosb., M. zapotilla Gilly; Achras sapota L., A. zapota L.; Sapota achras Mill.). Sapota, sapodilla, chiku is a hardy tropical fruit tree. In India, it is mainly cultivated for its delicious fruits. The sapodilla is believed native to Yucatan and possibly other nearby parts of southern Mexico, as well as northern Brazil and Northeastern Guatemala. But now its cultivation is extensive in India (Morton, 1987).

The major varieties under cultivation in thes states are as follows:

Andhra Pradesh: Pala, Kirtibarthi, Cricket Ball, Dwarapudi, Guthi Jonavalasa and Jonavalasa Round.

Gujarat: Kalipatti, Bhuripatti, Piilipatti, Dhola Diwani, Jhumakhia and Cricket Ball Maharashtra-Kalipatti: Cricket Ball, and Murraba

Karnataka-Kalipatti: Cricket Ball, Kirtibarthi, DHS 1 and DHS 2

Tamil Nadu: Guthi, Kirthibarthi, Pala, Co 1, Co 2 and PKM 1

The rambutan is native to Malaysia and commonly cultivated throughout the archipelago and southeast Asia. Though a close relative of the lychee and an equally desirable fruit, this member of the Sapindaceae is not nearly as well-known. Botanically, it is Nephelium lappaceum L. (syns. Euphoria nephelium DC.; Dimocarpus crinita Lour.). In the vernacular, it is generally called rambutan (in French, ramboutan or ramboutanier; in Dutch, ramboetan); occasionally in India, ramboostan.