eChapters

26.1 Introduction
Developed nations’ packaging sector has achieved great advancement. The advent of innovative marketing strategies such hyper markets and selfservice outlets has pushed the packaging technologies in these nations to unprecedented heights. The evolution of appliances and packaging tools as well as the introduction of fresh and better packaging materials has happened holistically. In nations like India still in development, packaging is still in its infancy. Packaging any product is the arrangement of the most appropriate containers and components to safeguard, move, label, and identify any good.
26.2 Packaging
Packaging is putting an item into a protective wrapping or container for use or storage. The package serves three purposes: it stores, shields, and merchandising tool. For the safe delivery of the product through the several phases of manufacturing, storage, transportation, distribution, and marketing, it is a necessary link between the manufacturer and ultimate customer. Fresh, sound and easy form of milk delivery depends on protective packaging to minimise losses and withstand the challenges of climate change, transit, handling etc.
1. To contain the product: The package should be big enough and built with suitable elements to stop spoiling and leaks. It should be sturdy enough to withstand handling, shipping, and storage difficulties as well as closely matched with the product.
2. To protect the product: Packaging seeks to protect the product from microbiological activity, heat, light, moisture, oxygen, evaporation, etc., therefore preventing contamination, loss, damage, or degradation.
3. To help in selling the product: Easy dispensing, reclosure, disposal, and possible reuse should be made possible by the packaging form, therefore helping the marketability of the product.

Bacterial species vary greatly in the ability of their cultures to remain alive after the completion of growth. Some species such as Neisseria gonorrhoeae and Streptobacillus are poorly viable and their cultures usually die out within a few day, whether kept at 37°C at room temperature or at 4-5°C; thus, they must be sub cultivated every 2-4 days for maintenance in the laboratory. Other species are much hardier,. especially sporing species which may remain viable for many years. There are also many non - sporing species (enterobacteriaceae) whose cultures, under suitable conditions, commonly remain viable for many months and often for as much as 10-20 years.

Processed fruit and vegetable are considered as staple food products throughout the world, and are becoming more popular with the increase of the global urban population. As a result, demand for processed fruit and vegetable products tends to increase with population growth in the world. There is strong demand for processed fruits and vegetables in the developing world over the past few years. In poor countries, people consume less fruits and vegetables due to the relatively high prices. All forms of preserved fruits and vegetables are available only to the urban elite people. But rural mosses producing more than 90 % of these fruits and vegetables are usually deprived of their uses.

Demand of Processed Fruits and Vegetables

Demand of processed fruits and vegetables is increasing in the developing as well as under developing countries of world. The following reasons are responsible for day by day increasing demand of processed fruits and vegetables.

After harvesting the quality of fruits and vegetables begins to diminish and products is edible for only a limited time then products begin to spoil or rot. Losses occur during harvesting and handling of fruits and vegetables can be minimized by proper techniques but processed food spoilage is bit difficult to control and stop after infection and contamination of microorganism.

Spoilage

Spoilage is deteriorative process which results reduction in quality of food (fruits and vegetables) which become inedible. The changes in food that cause it to lose its desired quality and eventually become inedible is called food spoilage or rotting. After harvesting, the quality of fruits and vegetables begins to diminish and product is edible for only a limited time. The deterioration and spoilage of fruits and vegetables may occur at different ways.

The losses in harvested products begin immediately after detachment of products from their parental plants. After some time, theses products begin to spoil or rot. Spoilage can be defined as the deteriorative process which renders the food inedible or results in reduction in quality. Spoilage of fresh fruits and vegetables usually occurs during storage, transportation and during processing. They also get contaminated with spoilage organisms either from each other or from the containers. Mechanical injuries during harvesting and transportation further aggravates the deterioration process.

Freezing : Freezing is a process where temperature of food (fruits, vegetable etc.) is lowered down considerably below freezing point so that the water present inside the food undergoes change in state from liquid to solid (ice) and gets frozen immediately eg Frozen Pea. Water is immobilized and solutes are concentrated to reduce the water activity.

Principles of preservation : Combination of low temperature, low water activity, and pre-treatments like blanching, dipping in sugar syrup etc. stop (reduce) the growth and activity of microorganisms.

Theory of freezing : Freezing takes place in two main steps

INTRODUCTION

Aquaculture had undergone rapid expansion and intensification in the recent past and has taken the shape of a full-fledged diversified industry. But the risk involved in aquaculture activity has also increased significantly due to the outbreak of diseases which has a devastating effect on the aquaculture crops. Fish are aquatic and poikilothermic, their existence and performance are dominated by the quality of their environment . The aquatic environment is a complex system subject to constant physical and chemical changes brought about by natural and manmade processes. Therefore, choosing the proper site to develop aquaculture facility is paramount to its success.

A disease is an abnormal condition of an organism caused by infection, inherent weakness or environmental stress; it prevents the organism from functioning normally which ultimately leads to death (Avault, 1998). In an aquatic environment, there is a profound balancing of relationship between host (fish), pathogen and the environment existing and this is the fundamental concept to disease susceptibility of fish (Snieszko, 1973). A disease organism may be present in the environment or host, but will not cause disease as long as the host has high natural resistant or the physical condition of the host is strong. Once the imbalance is created to any of the component, opportunistic pathogen invades the host resulting to the outbreak of disease.

Wafer : A thin crisp cake, candy, cracker or chips is known as wafer.
 
Waffle : A crisp cake of batter baked in a waffle iron is called waffle

Warner-Bartzler Shear : It is one of the oldest but commonly used devices used to measure the tenderness of meat. It is used to test the quality in the cooked meat.

Apple is the pomaceous fruit (Malus domestica) in the rose family (Rosaceae). It is one of the most widely cultivated tree fruits, and the most widely known of the many members of genus Malus that are used by humans.

The apple originated in South-West Asia which includes Asia Minor, the Caucasus, Soviet Central Asia, Himalayan India and Pakistan. It is grown extensively in the temperate region. The major apple growing countries are Australia, Argentina, Brazil, China, Canada, Denmark, Egypt, France, Gemany, USA, India, etc. In India states of Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh and mountanous region of Uttar Pradesh are the major apple producers.

Cultivars/Varieties: The apple varieties are divided into three groups based on their maturing periods. The early season varieties grown in the states of Himachal Pradesh, Jammu & Kashmir and Uttranchal are: Tydeman’s Early(P), Irish Peach, Early Shanburry(P), Michael Molies, Benoni Fenny, Benoni Delicious, Schlomit Starkrimson, and Chaubattia Princess. The Mid season varieties are: American Mother, Red Delicious, Richared Razakwar, Starking Delicious, Vance Delicious, Jonathan(P), McIntosh(P), Top Red Lord Lam, Cox’s Orange Pippin(P), Cortland bourne(P), Red Chief, Red Gold(P), Golden Delicious(P), Oregon Spur, Queen,s Apple, Redspur, Rome Beauty, Scarlet Siberian. The late season varieties are: Golden Delicious(P), King’s Pippin, Rymer, Yellow Newton(P), American Apirouge, Buckingham(P), Winter Banana, Kerry Pippin, Granny Smith(P), Sunhari Chamure, Golden Delicious(P), Red Delicious, Ambri Baldwin, and Yellow Newton(P).

Bael (Aegle marmelos, L.) belongs to the family Rutaceae and is an important indigenous fruit of India known since 2000-820 BC. Bael is considered to be native to India and is grown all over the country. It is also seen in south east Asian countries like Sri Lanka, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Burma, Indonesia and Thailand. It is a hardy plant and can be grown even on marginal soils.

The leaves are trifoliate and aromatic. The leaves of the tree are used in religious offerings. The fruit is usually globose, grey or yellowish with small hard aromatic rind. The pulp is thick mucilaginous, orange yellow in colour with sweet scented aroma. The importance of bael fruit lies in its curative properties. It is used in Ayurveda for its medicinal properties.

There are no recognized or improved varieties of bael with a standard name. It usually goes with the name of locality or region it is grown in. Ayodhya, Etawah, Faizabad Local, Gonda Selection, Kagzi Bael, Kagzi Kalan, Mirzapuri, Darogaji, Ojha, Rampuri Azamati, Khamaria, Deoria Large, Gonda-1 and NB-5 are a few to name.

Uses

Bael fruits cut in half, or the soft types broken open, and the pulp, dressed with palm sugar, eaten for breakfast, as is a common practice in Indonesia. The pulp is often processed as nectar or “squash” (diluted nectar). A popular drink (called “sherbet” in India) is made by beating the seeded pulp together with milk and sugar. A beverage is also made by combining bael fruit pulp with that of tamarind. These drinks are consumed perhaps less as food or refreshment than for their medicinal effects.

Mature but still unripe fruits are made into jam, with the addition of citric acid. The pulp is also converted into marmalade or sirup, likewise for both food and therapeutic use, the marmalade being eaten at breakfast by those convalescing from diarrhea and dysentery. A firm jelly is made from the pulp alone, or, better still, combined with guava to modify the astringent flavor. The pulp is also pickled. The young leaves and shoots are eaten as a vegetable in Thailand and used to season food in Indonesia. They are said to reduce the appetite. An infusion of the flowers is a cooling drink. (Morton, 1987).

Mango (Mangifera indica L.), the choicest fruit of India, is said to be the king of fruits. Mango belongs to the family Anacardiaceae and genus Mangifera. The fruits are lusciously juicy, with pleasant aroma and sweet taste. In nutritive valve and popularity, no other fruit can match it. It is an outstanding source of vitamin A, a good source of vitamin C, apart from normal minerals and other vitamins. In, India, it occupies the same position as apple does in temperate countries and grapes in certain other regions.

According to de Candolle, mango has been under cultivation in India for over 4000 years. References indicate that Alexander the Great noticed a beautiful mango plantation in the Indus Valley in 327 BC. Early foreign traveller like Huen-tsang (632-645), Ibn-Haukul, (902-968 AD) Ibn- batuta (1325-1349 AD) and Ludovici de Varthema (1503-1508) also praised the mangoes grown in India and mentioned it in their travel notes.

Mango is native to southern Asia, especially eastern India, Burma, and the Andaman Islands. Besides India, mango is cultivated as a commercial crop in many countries, such as, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Myanmar, Sri Lanka, Thailand, Vietnam, Malaysia, the Philippines, Indonesia, the Fiji Island, Tropical Australia, Egypt, Israel, Sudan, Kenya, Uganda, Tanzania, South Africa, the USA (Florida, Hawaii and Puerto Rico), Mexico, Brazil, Haiti and West Indies.

Varietie/Hybrids: Dashehari, Langra, Chausa, Fazli, Malda and Bombay Green are the popular varieties in Northern and Central India. Alphonso, Kesar, Pairi, Rajapuri, Jamadar, and Totapuri are widely grown in Western India. Bangenapalli, Suvarnarekha, Neelum, Totapuri, Malgoa and Alphonso are popularly grown in Southern India and Gulabkhas, Kishen Bhog, Himsagar, Zardal, Fazli and Langra are grown mainly in Eastern part of the country. Mallika, Amrapali, Manjeera, Ratna, Niranjan, Neeleshan, Neelishwari, Neelphonso, Arka Aruna, Arka puneet, Arka Anmol, Sidhu and CISH-M1 are some of the hybird varieties available.

Food safety and hygiene has been an age-old concern. However, today it has become an important aspect due to the rise in foodborne illnesses for the past few decades globally. It is estimated by WHO that annually 600 million suffer from foodborne diseases as a result of unsafe food consumption while 4,20,000 deaths are recorded globally.

The foods we eat contain nutrients. Nutrients are substances required by the body to perform its basic functions. Nutrients must be obtained from diet, since the human body does not synthesize them. Nutrients are used to produce energy, detect and respond to environmental surroundings, move, excrete wastes, respire (breathe), grow, and reproduce. There are six classes of nutrients required for the body to function and maintain overall health. These are carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, water, vitamins, and minerals. Foods also contain non-nutrients that may be harmful (such as cholesterol, dyes, and preservatives) or beneficial (such as antioxidants). Nutrients that are needed in large amounts are called macro-nutrients. There are three classes of macro-nutrients: carbohydrates, lipids, and proteins. These can be metabolically processed into cellular energy. Micro-nutrients are nutrients required by the body in lesser amounts, but are still essential for carrying out bodily functions. Micro-nutrients include all the essential minerals and vitamins. There are sixteen essential minerals and thirteen vitamins.

Naïve panel: It refers to the sensory evaluation panel that has not been trained specifically regarding the product evaluation being undertaken in the study.

Nano technology: It is the art of manipulating materials on an atomic or molecular scale to build microscopic devices. The word “nano’ meaning ‘dwarf” in Greek language refers to dimension / magnitude of the material / particle in the order of 109. Nanotechnology is nothing but manipulating of particles into very small particles called nano-particles. These particles have dimensions in the scale of nano-meter and used to design / build materials and devices. Nanotechnology has been provisionally defined as relating to materials, systems and processes which operate at a scale of 100 nanometers (nm) or less. Nanotechnology is an anticipated manufacturing technology that allows through and inexpensive control of the structure of matter by working with atom. It will allow many things to be manufactured at low cost and with no pollution. The concept of nanotechnology was first given by Nobel Laureate physicist Richard P. Feynman in Southern California in 1959. Nanotechnology is sometimes termed as Molecular Manufacturing based nanotechnology “MNT”.

The major challenges to any developing society are poverty and economic deprivation of its ruralpopulation.Eradication of poverty, the focus of all developmental efforts has remained a very complicated and serious concern among developing countries. Poverty is abysmal rooted covering several interlocked aspects such as lack of asset, under employment, uncertain and relatively unproductive employment, low remuneration, economic vulnerability, illiteracy, social disadvantage etc.

The rural areas were found to be more prone to poverty, even if it exists in urban areas also. The rural poor are perpetuating poverty and are the victims of the “vicious cycle of poverty”. Fishing communities in the coastal belts all over the world are also not an exception to this. Poverty in fishing communities is very common and is characterized by high population density, poor living conditions, lack of proper education and poor access to education and health care. Due to poor attention paid by the state, the infrastructure support like roads, electricity, good drinking water, markets etc also are be poor. Though efforts for reducing fishing pressure is taken by Government, scope for alternative employment opportunities are less. Thus those sector that are in engaged inthe world’s most dangerous occupations, are considered on par with SC/ST communities as far as India is concerned. The loss of a boat, gear or an active fisherman in the family can be tragic and lead to total financial deprivation of the family. Hence poverty and vulnerability in fishing communities is widely known but poorly addressed issue. As in rural farming sector, dependence of fishing communities on private moneylenders continues in many areas, especially for meeting emergent requirements. For various reasons, credit to these sections of the population has not been institutionalized.

The emergence of microfinance as an alternative financial delivery mechanism was a response to the failure of past efforts by government and international agencies effectively to provide financial services to the poor. But while considering micro finance programmes for fisheries sector, there should be special considerations that are unique to fishing communities and need special consideration. Instead of random payment of loans to target sectors and populations, efforts were taken for setting up and building local institutions that cater for the poor. This resulted in the materialization of microfinance institutions (MFIs) that serve the rural poor. MFIs initially started providing microcredit but have now extended their services to savings, insurance etc.

Fisheries as a source of food, livelihood and income is probably as old as human civilization. Millions of men and women across the world, especially the developing world, are dependent on the sector. While fish capture in the open seas has generally been a male preserve conditioned by various social, cultural and economic factors; women also have significant contributions for sustaining household nutritional and income security. They have been engaged in fishing in inshore coastal waters, inland water bodies like rivers and ponds; and in post harvest activities like pre-processing, processing, drying, salting, and allied activities like marketing, net making and mending etc. With increasing volumes of fish coming from culture fisheries the participation of men and women in these activities are also increasing. Suffice to say that both men and women contribute to the overall growth and development of the fisheries sector. However, often women and their contributions tend to be marginalized in the fisheries development debate.

Women’s roles in fisheries

In the marine fisheries sector, fishing is largely a male preserve. Women rarely venture into the sae, conditioned by cultural and social taboos rather than by skill and endurance. However, the support from women in managing the households and in taking up subsistence or other livelihood activities related to fisheries activities that may actually go into the household income security need to be acknowledged. Studies show that women comprise about 46% of the labour force in small-scale capture fisheries-related activities (FAO, World Bank, IFAD, 2008). It is as high as 73% in Nigeria to a low of 4% in Mozambique. At least 50 % of the workforce in inland fisheries and 60 % of those marketing fish are women in Asia and West Africa.

Introduction
Generally, muscles and offals obtained from animals feeding on grass and various other cultivated crops are regarded as meat. Apart from the meat obtained from the cattle, sheep, goat, pig and poultry, in many countries particularly Denmark, Belgium, Holland and Germany, horse meat is also consumed (hippophasia) as normal meat. Kangaroos are slaughtered for meat in Australia whereas capybara a large semi-aquatic vegetarian rodent, is used in South America as of one of the meat source. Dog meat (fragrant) is relished (Kinophasia) in few cultures such as South Korea, China, Vietnam and few north eastern states of India.
In many parts of the world including Indian subcontinent, buffalo meat (Bubalus bubalis), also known as water buffalo or arna, is quite popular owing to its tenderness, leanness and low cholesterol qualities. It is distributed in many countries around the world such as India (largest population), Pakistan, China, Bangladesh, Indonesia, Philippines, Hungary, Italy and France etc. Bison (Bison bison) from North America is also called buffalo but they are separate species of the order Bovidae. Rabbits are also source of meat having higher growth rate and better feed conversion ratio (2:1). Elands are another meat source which are raised in Africa and Russia for meat purpose.
Meat is quite high in protein content but the presence of saturated fat is perceived negatively due to its association in various cardiovascular diseases, diabetes etc. Efforts are made to produce lean meat having higher content of unsaturated fatty acids and to reduce the ω-6 to ω -3 fatty acids ratio.

Ice bank cooling: Storing of fruit and vegetable in storage chamber with positive ventilation and system countries where ice formation is allowed during night time (as electricity cost of night is less as compared to the day time). Melting of ice occurs during day time and with proper air circulation by means of ventilation process, approximately 0.5-1⁰C temperature with 90% RH in the chamber is maintained. Ice Bank Cooler / Air forced cooler leads to desiccation of the produce (Plate 139). So use forced air high humidity cooler and these are known as Ice Bank Cooler. Ice bank coolers are useful for strawberry.

Lab coat: A loose white coat with deep pockets that is worn in a laboratory or medical office.

Labelling: It means any written, printed or graphic matter that is present on the label, accompanies the food or is displayed near the food, including that for the purpose of promoting its sale or disposal. After packaging, labels are required on the finished products intended for distribution and sale. Labelling can reflect on the quality of the product. It must be clear and informative. Information includes Name of the Manufacturer, Date of Manufacture, Net Weight, Gross Weight, Best before etc. Proper storage is needed for maintenance of the quality. Storage must be done only at recommended temperature, relative humidity, light and air / oxygen and carbon dioxide conditions etc. to maintain the quality of the food product. Label may include tag, brand, and pictorial or descriptive matter, written, printed, embossed, graphic, perforated, stencilled or stamped impressions. It is attached to container, cover, lid, or crown of a food package.

Laboratory: A place equipped for experimental study in a science or for testing and analysis. Broadly, it is a place providing opportunity for experimentation, observation, or practice in a field of study.

Lacquer: It is a colloidal dispersion of a solution of cellulose derivative, resin and plasticizer in solvent and diluents, where in all these constituents dried in air by evaporation of solvents, thus yielding a transparent, hard and water proof film.

The salts of the milk include those constituents that are present as ions or in equilibrium with ions. The main salts of milk are phosphates, citrates, chlorides, sulfates, carbonates, and bicarbonates of sodium, potassium, calcium, and magnesium. Approximately 20 other elements are found in milk in trace quantities including copper, iron, lead, boron, manganese, zinc, iodine, etc. These ions are more or less associated with themselves and with proteins. Some metals act as catalysts in the oxidation of milk fat leading to oxidative rancidity and certain metals like Ca, P, Mg, Mo, Co, Fe, etc. are components of metalloproteins such as lactoferrin, lactoperoxidase, xanthine oxidase, and parts of phospholipids.

Distribution of Salts Between Casein Micelles and Serum

The phosphorus is present as orthophosphate, but part of it is bound to organic components like serine and threonine residues of casein, molecules of hexoses and glycerol, phospholipids, etc. Phosphorus is also found in the hydroxyapatite structure of the colloidal calcium phosphate in the micellar structure of casein. The sulfur content of milk is about 0.36 g/kg, but most of it is in the amino acid residues methionine and cysteine of the proteins. About 10% is present as inorganic sulfate.

Physical Equilibria Among Salts

Milk contains several elements but all of them are not entirely in a soluble state. Some minerals exist in colloidal and ionic states at the normal pH of milk. The compounds that are in soluble condition play an important role in keeping various milk constituents in stable condition. A balance exists between the components that are in a soluble state and those which are in colloidal state.

Leavening agents produce carbon dioxide which helps to give characteristic structure to bread cakes and biscuits etc. In the case of cakes, leavening is produced by air entrapped in the dough due to the presence of egg in the mix. The important groups of leavening agent’s are l. baker’s yeast 2. Chemical leavening agents