eChapters

Abstract

Ghee means the pure clarified fat derived solely from milk or curd or from desi (cooking) butter or from cream to which no coloring matter or preservative has been added. It is the second largest dairy product prepared from milk and it is almost 35% of total milk production. Unfortunately, the producers or the middle- men involved in the ghee trade, tend to adulterate ghee with cheaper oils and fats like vegetable oils, animal body fats, hydrogenated fats and sometimes even the non-edible mineral oils, especially during lean season to earn more money. Recently, the problem of adulteration has assumed a very serious dimension. Such a situation has tarnished the image of dairy industry. Methods presently adopted by food law enforcing agencies to ensure the quality of ghee are mainly based on the physico- chemical constants, but all these methods have some limitations. So researchers are always in search of different innovative methods to check the quality of ghee.

Abstract

Tremendous hike inworld population has increased thrust on the limited resources which has considerably affected the viability of the food. The emerging challenge for policy makers and food scientists is to put forward viable solutions. Utilization of underutilized crops/plants that act as good sources of starch could be explored in a better way for the sustenance of the limited sources like food crops/plants. The demand for starch and the foods containing starch has been increasing continually. Since, the starch in its native form has certain limitations in its functional properties to be used for different applications. Therefore, it becomes important to explore certain technologies which could be used for modification of starch. Among different technologies gamma irradiation ensures food safety while inducing physicochemical changes of the components. Although, the chemical modifications have been used widely so far but the concerns related to the chemical residues left are diminishing their demand. Hence, the physical processes particularly the gamma irradiation process has emerged as an efficient alternative with some benefits over other process like eco-friendly, economical, reliable and safe for altering the physico-chemical and biological characteristics of the product. Gamma Irradiation of starch has been successfully employed for the achievement of some desired physico-chemical, biological and functional properties of the foods and other related items. In this chapter, valuable impact of gamma irradiation on the physico-chemical, biological and functional properties of starch has been summarized.

Abstracts

To ensure safe food and adequate sanitation programs, the equipment used for processing of food products must be designed, fabricated, constructed, and installed according to sound hygienic design principles. This ensures the equipment can be adequately cleaned and sanitized, and that surfaces are resistant to daily exposure to corrosive food products and cleaning/sanitizing chemicals. This chapter focuses primarily on fundamental principles of hygienic design, which protect the product from microbial, chemical, and foreign-body contamination. This is followed by a discussion of general aspects of hygienic construction and design of food equipments, the selection of materials of construction and specification of surface finishes, fabrication, installation and cleaning and sanitization. Quality of raw materials or foods ingredients, proper processing, packaging and storage of finished products decides the quality of the food products. Planning for plant and equipment layout, its design, services (water, air, refrigeration, steam), waste disposal etc. are some of the critical factors, which contributes to quality. In addition, the food processing equipment must comply with strict standards and regulations, which are necessary for securing the quality and safety of the food products to the consumers.

Abstract

Micronutrient (vitamin and mineral) deficiencies affect more than 2 billion people worldwide and are especially prevalent in developing countries including India. Conditions due to vitamin mineral deficiencies account for 7.3 percent of the global disease burden.Iron deficiency (anemia), vitamin A and iodine deficiency disorders continue to be a grim public health problem. Thus, elimination of vitamin and mineral deficiencies is essential to improve the overall health of the masses as well as to sustain economic growth and national development. Food fortification is an effective intervention to deliver vitamin and mineral rich foods to large populations. In addition to the prevention of vitamin and mineral deficiencies, food fortification is an effective measure to raise vitamin and mineral levels by moving the population towards consuming recommended dietary allowances for most micronutrients-making it a long–term and a sustainable strategy. India is the largest producer of milk in the world with 146.3 million tonnes and the consumption rate of milk and milk products by all age groups of people are high.Therefore, fortification of milk with mineral and vitamins could be a safe and effective strategy to fight these micronutrient deficiencies.

Abstract

Nutrition and genetics both have very crucial role in human health and in development of chronic diseases such as cancer, osteoporosis, diabetes and cardiovascular diseases. Difference between individuals in response to dietary intervention is a well-known phenomenon in nutrition research (Ordovas, 2008).The effect of dietary changes on phenotypes such as blood cholesterol, body weight and blood pressure can differ significantly between individuals (Ordovas et al., 2007). Various bioprocess i.e. ingestion, absorption, digestion, transport, metabolism and excretion of nutrients and food bioactive components in human body is carried out through proteins such as enzymes, receptors, transporters, ion channels and hormones. Genetic variation leads to altered production and affect functional properties of these proteins. Furthermore nutritional efficacy is also different among different individuals which might be affected by nutritional status. Thus diet and gene expression are interrelated and have a mutual effect on physiology of human body.

Abstract

Probiosis has emerged in the early 20^th century after Ellie Metchnikoff proposed his hypothesis that organisms were reponsible for longivity of ethnic people of Balkan region of Russia and ever since it has grow into a major scientific field which has its applications extending into farming, aquaculture and prophylactics in humans. Vast research was carried out on this topic and Lactobacillus sp. and Bifidobacterium sp, are the two important genus that are highly studied and widely recognized universally as conventional probiotics. Apart from these two genus there exists many other bacterial species which have shown promising probiotic potential. Such non conventional probiotics are widely used in some parts of world as commercial food products with health beneficial effects, pharmaceutical products or being tested for their safe utilization in human beings. The present chapter tries to covers some genera and their potential and application in prophylactics.

Abstract

Chitin has been ranked at second position after cellulose as the most abundant natural biopolymer. Chitin has similar chemical structure to that of cellulose with 2-acetamido-2-deoxy-b-d-glucose (NAG) monomers attached via ß (1–>4) linkages. Chitosan is the deacetylated (to varying degrees) form of chitin, which, unlike chitin, is soluble in acidic solutions. Therefore, Chitosan, a copolymer of glucosamine and N-acetyl glucosamine, is amongst the most copious biopolymers on earth and finds wide range of biomedical and industrial applications. It has been approved in 1983 by USDA as a feed additive. Chitin basically is obtained from prawn/crab shells and chemical treatment of chitin produces chitosan. Since supplies of seafood waste are seasonable and variable, so fungi can be used as alternative source for chitosan. The unique physicochemical properties of chitosan provide great potential of its utilization in food industry especially dairy industry such as production of dairy products, dairy waste water treatment, extension of shelf life of dairy products etc. In recent years, exotic synthetic compounds are losing their appeal, thus application of chitinous products in dairy as well as processing aids has received considerable attention. The modified chitosan with greater functional properties has increased application in different dairy foods. This chapter focuses on the fundamental uses of chitosan and their derivatives in a variety of dairy industry applications.

Abstract

Meat is considered to be a highly perishable food commodity because of its biological composition. Thus, to extend its shelf life and maintain its nutritive value, there is an urgent need to find out alternatives for synthetic anti-microbial and anti-oxidants. This will not only serve the purpose of meat product manufacturer’s but will also satisfy the consumers’ demand for minimally processed meat products devoid of synthetic preservatives. This review discusses the natural antimicrobial and anti- oxidants sources viz., various essential oils, their composition and application in different meat and meat products. Essential oils from basil, rosemary, thyme, oregano, ginger, basilica, balm, coriander, rosemary and clove have exhibited a better potential to be used as an antimicrobial agent in meat and meat products. They owe their anti-microbial properties to the phenolic compounds present in them. They dislocate cell membrane and disrupt functionality of bacterial cell membrane and eventually leading to the release of intracellular components. However, essential oils are not widely used due to the pungent and intense aroma imparted to the food, thus there is still need to work out on the novel technologies which can not only increase food shelf life but at the same time, are sensorially acceptable to the consumers.

Abstract

Agro-food industries generate a large amount of by-products and wastes. These byproducts and wastes have a negative impact in terms of the environmental concern due to the increase of pollutant disposal, and industrial sustainability because of high costs related to their management. These byproducts and wastes are rich in minerals, sugars and proteins. The composition and characteristics of wastes from different food processing industries vary and rely upon the production technique and the nature of the product. India is the second largest producer of rice/paddy in the world and the utilization of rice bran is gaining importance. However, a small fraction of these have been utilized. In case of fruits and vegetables, industrial processing of potato generates between 70 and 140 thousand tons of peels worldwide annually. Moreover, 37% of world’s total annual production of banana is shared by India. Hence, to minimize the disposal fees and trash collection new policies and methods have been developed for handling and treatment of wastes and byproducts. This chapter envisages the status of different agro-food industrial byproducts and wastes for the development of different food and non-food products.

Abstract

The interest in the utilization of industrial by-products is increasing day by day and is major reason for exploring different meat, poultry and fish industry waste and optimization of extracting conditions of different valuable compounds. Utilization of these by-products in effective manner can be positive for meat industry economy as well as environmental pollution of the country. Besides the potential revenue losses, non-utilized or underutilized by-products accounts for the extra cost for their disposal. Meat producers are converting these by-products into value added edible and inedible form. Among the most prominent current uses of meat, poultry and fish waste are food ingredients, water treatment, cosmetic and personal care products, biogas/biodiesel, biomedical and pharmaceutical application. Several studies have dealt with the production of several value-added products such as gelatin, collagen, enzymes, specific proteins, bioactive peptides, chitin, chitosan, and pigments fro m the meat industries waste. Recently, in the food and pharmaceutical industry, an increasing number of new applications have been found for products generated from meat, poultry and fish industry waste; in different products as foaming agents, emulsifiers, biodegradable film-forming materials, colloid stabilizers, and microencapsulating agents, in line with the growing trend to replace synthetic agents with more natural ones.

Abstract

India ranks in the world’s five largest producers of over 80% of agricultural produce items. Processing of agricultural produce generates substantial amount of crop residues which can have tremendous value to farmers. However, a large portion of the residues is burned on farm primarily to clear the field from straw and stubble; which affects the environment, soil health and crop yield.The conversion of crop residues to eco-friendly and valuable product like biochar is need of the hour. Biochar is an organic amendment which slowly releases C in the soil, and is stable over the years. Various applications of biochar like reduction in greenhouse gases emission, sequestering C in the soil, increasing crop yield, used as combusting fuel and livestock feedmakes it a promising candidate for sustainable agriculture and environment.

Abstract

Food lost during the production chain is referred to as postharvest loss. Reducing postharvest loss can effectively feed starving mouths while conserving resources and decreasing the pressure to produce more. There are five main areas where postharvest loss can be reduced – harvest, storage, transportation, processing, and retail. New approaches and technologies in each of these areas will increase the amount of food available for human consumption. The total loss due to poor post- harvest processing of agricultural products in India when valued in terms of monetary reflects a tremendous loss in the economy. Annual value of harvest and post-harvest losses of major agricultural produces at national level to be of the order of Rs. 92,651 Crore calculated using production data of 2012-13 at 2014 wholesale prices. Deficits in food items or financial loss should not have occurred if postharvest losses were reduced through proper processing and preservation from harvest to consumption. Both the government and private sector need to invest in research so as to improve and modernize post-harvest facilities for attaining more efficient market infrastructure and distribution channels. Research and extension activities have to be closely coordinated particularly in the public sector for the benefit of farmers, traders and consumers.

1. EXPERIMENT 1 : INDUSTRIAL USES OF IMPORTANT CHEMICALS

1. INTRODUCTION

Food is constantly being rated for its quality either consciously or subconsciously by all people. Consumers choose food on the basis of its quality and their individual likes or dislikes. The attractiveness of food is clearly a quality which is important both to the manufacturer and to the consumer. When consumers make a selection they basically look for food that is attractive in terms of colour, flavour and texture apart from other psychological and social factors, which they may associate with food. The nutritional quality, shelf-life/keeping quality and cost factor are other criteria which may affect their selection.

The distinctive and attractive colour of food is not only pleasing but is also an indicator of good quality and freshness. The senses of taste and odour help us in detecting and appreciating different flavours and deciding on whether we like the food. The feel and texture of food entering the mouth should be firm, juicy, crisp and are extremely important characteristics that dictate the acceptance of a food. Today’s consumers are discerning, demanding, and more knowledgeable about food. They expect safe products having good value and high sensory quality. Therefore, knowing consumer’s preferences and perceptions of the sensory characteristics of food and beverage products is vital to food manufacturers. Without appropriate evaluation, there is a high risk of market failure.

1. INTRODUCTION

India is a vast country having a geographical area of 328 million hectares with 15 distinct agro-climatic zones. Fruits and vegetables are one of the most important and fast growing sub-sectors as they form an indispensable part of healthy diet. It holds a unique position for growing a wide range of vegetables in its diverse agro-climatic conditions. World production of vegetables amounts to 486 million tons, while that of fruits is 392 million tons. India produces 159.5m MT tons of vegetables from an area of 9.07 million hectare annually (NHB, 2013). Productivity of vegetables in India presently is 16.7 tons per hectare. India produces 36 % green peas and 10% onion of world’s production. Onion, potatoes and green vegetables like okra, bitter gourd and green chillies also have good export potential. Being rich in vitamins, minerals, dietary fibre and natural antioxidants most vegetables are classified as the protective foods. However, owing to the presence of high moisture content and mostly being non acidic, the vegetables are highly perishable and needs to be handled properly and immediately after harvest. Processing of vegetables into different value added products is one of the most effective alternatives to reduce post harvest losses.

Vegetables are highly beneficial for the maintenance of health and disease prevention. An intake of about 280 grams of vegetables per day per person has been considered essential. Vegetable unlike cereals deteriorated quickly when stored for long periods because of the relatively high moisture contents. Huge amounts of losses take place between harvesting and consumption. Various causes are attributed to the deterioration process and it becomes essential to adopt integrated, low cost system of post harvest technology right from the pre-harvest stage.

Lipids are a class of compounds that are defined by how they are isolated, rather than by their composition. Lipids are molecules that can be extracted from plants and animals by low polarity solvents such as ether, chloroform, or even acetone. They are not appreciably soluble in water. Fats and the fatty acids from which they are made belong to this group as do oils, waxes and steroids. Hydrolyzable lipids are those that contain a functional group that will react with water. The functional group is usually an ester and the list of compounds includes neutral fats, waxes, phospholipids, and glycolipids. Non- hydrolyzable lipids lack such functional groups and include steroids and fat-soluble vitamins (e.g. A, D, E, and K).

Fats and oils are composed of triacylglycerols. These are compounds prepared by the union of glycerol (1,2, 3-tri- hydroxypropane) and 3 fatty acids to form a triester. Fats and oils belong to a group of biological substances called lipids. Lipids are biological chemicals that do not dissolve in water. They serve a variety of functions in organisms, such as regulatory messengers (hormones), structural components of membranes, and as energy storehouses. Fats and oils generally function in the latter capacity. Fats differ from oils only in that they are solid at room temperature, while oils are liquid. Fats and oils share a common molecular structure. The fats and oils contain three ester functional groups. Fats and oils are esters of the tri- alcohol, glycerol (or glycerine). Therefore, fats and oils are commonly called triglycerides, although a more accurate name is triacylglycerols. Triglyceride molecules contain mostly carbon and hydrogen atoms, with only six oxygen atoms per molecule. This means that fats and oils are highly reduced (un-oxidized). Oils are particularly common in seeds, where the stored energy helps seedlings during germination, until they can exploit solar energy through photosynthesis. Fatty acids contain an even number of carbon atoms, from 4 to 36, bonded in an unbranched chain. Most of the bonds between carbon atoms are single bonds. If all of these bonds are single bonds, the fatty acid is said to be saturated, because the number of atoms attached to each carbon atom is the maximum of four. If some of the bonds between carbon atoms are double bonds, then the fatty acid is unsaturated. When there is only one double bond, it is usually between the 9th and 10th carbon atom in the chain, where the carbon atom attached to the oxygen atoms is counted as the first carbon atom. If there is a second double bond, it usually occurs between the 12th and 13th carbon atoms, while a third is usually between the 15th and 16th.

1. INTRODUCTION

Proteins are polymers of amino acids. Twenty different types of amino acids occur naturally in proteins. Proteins differ from each other according to the type, number and sequence of amino acids that make up the polypeptide backbone. Proteins are the important constituents of foods for a number of reasons. They are a major source of energy, as well as containing essential amino-acids, like lysine, tryptophan, methionine, leucine, isoleucine and valine which are essential to human health, but which the body cannot synthesize. Proteins are also the major structural components of many natural foods, often determining their overall texture, e.g., tenderness of meat or fish products. Isolated proteins are often used in foods as ingredients because of their unique functional properties, i.e., their ability to provide desirable appearance, texture or stability.

Proteins are complex organic molecules made up of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen. Most proteins also contain sulphur and phosphorus and also play an important role in food preparation. The final quality of many food products are influenced by how the proteins are treated while food is being prepared.

Food is composed of three main constituents viz; carbohydrates, proteins and fats and their derivatives. In addition to these constituents, inorganic mineral elements and diverse organic compounds like vitamins, pigments, flavouring compounds, enzymes, and acids are also present. Carbohydrates, proteins, fats and vitamins are organic in nature. The percentage of water is large in certain foods. The variation in structure, texture, colour, flavour and nutritive value is because of the varying proportions and arrangements of these constituents.

Carbohydrates are important in foods as a major source of energy, to impart crucial textural properties, and as dietary fiber which influences physiological processes. Digestible carbohydrates, which are converted into monosaccharides, which are absorbed, provide metabolic energy. Carbohydrates account for more than 70% of the caloric value of the human diet. It is recommended that all persons should limit calories from fat to not more than 30% and that most of the carbohydrate calories should come from starch. Non-digestible polysaccharides (all other than starch) comprise the major portion of dietary fiber.

1. TERMS RELATED WITH BROWNING

1. INTRODUCTION

Quality, i.e. the degree of excellence or superiority, is a combination of attributes, properties, or characteristics that each commodity value in of human food. The relative importance of each quality component depends upon the commodity and its intended use (e.g. fresh or processed) and varies among producers, handlers, and consumers. Appearance of quality, firmness and shelf-life are important from the point of view of wholesale and retail marketers. Consumers judge quality of fresh fruits and vegetables on the basis of appearance and firmness, flavour (eating) quality of the product. Consumers are also concerned about the nutritional quality and safety of fresh fruit and vegetables.

1. FRUIT CROPS

1.1 Physiological Disorders

A wide variety of physiological disorders are found in apple fruit, but the susceptibility varies with variety, pre-harvest factors and post harvest conditions. Disorders can be considered in three categories:

1. Disorders that develop only on the tree: Most important is watercore in which intercellular air spaces in the core and cortical tissues become filled with liquid, Presence of watercore in fruit at harvest creates problems in certain varieties such as ‘Delicious’ because fruit with moderate or severe watercore can develop breakdown during storage.
2. Disorders that develop on the tree and during storage: Bitter pit is a disorder characterized by development of discrete pitting of the cortical flesh. Rapid cooling, CA storage and application of postharvest calcium drenches may be able to reduce its occurrence.
3. Disorders that develop during storage: Senescent breakdown disorders, chilling disorders and disorders associated with inappropriate atmospheres during storage are common disorders. The most common disorders associated with temperature and atmospheres are superficial scald, soft scald, low temperature breakdown, brown core, internal browning, low O2 injury, and high CO2 injury.

I. POST HARVEST DISEASES

A. Post-Harvest Diseases of Fruits

1. INTRODUCTION

Grading and packing of fruits ensure the safe transportation from the farm to the storage and consumer centre, while reducing the damage during transportation. The properly graded fruits should be packed in such a way that they do not collide with each other during transportation. Throughout the entire handling system, packaging can be both an aid and hindrance to obtaining maximum storage life and quality. Before the fruit is packed in a suitable container/package it is graded according to the standard grades accepted in the market. Packaging is one of the important components after grading during the handling of fruits. Packaging is meant to protect the commodity by immobilizing and cushioning it, but temperature management can be made more difficult if packing material block ventilation holes. Packing material can act as vapour barriers and helps in maintaining higher relative humidity within the package. Packaging material such as trays, cups, wraps, liners and pads may be added to help immobilize the produce. A wide variety of containers such as wooden boxes, plastic crates, corrugated fiberboard boxes are important package used in the transportation and distribution of fruits in most of the developing countries.

1. INTRODUCTION

Harvesting is the process of gathering the crops from the fields at maturity. The harvesting of a commodity means the end of the growing season for a particular crop. Harvesting is the most labour-intensive activity of the growing season. Harvesting in general includes an immediate post-harvest handling, the actions taken immediately after removing the crop are pre-cooling, sorting, cleaning, packaging and up to the point of on-farm processing or shipping to the wholesaler or consumer.

Harvest timing is a critical decision that balances the likely weather conditions with the degree of crop maturity. Weather conditions such as frost, rain and unseasonably warm or cold periods can affect yield and quality. These conditions can be avoided by harvesting the commodities earlier than the harvest date, but this may result in poor yield and quality. On the other hand, delayed harvesting also results in a better yield, but increases the risk of weather problems. Thus, proper harvesting timings of horticultural commodities often play an important role.

Assessment of harvesting time is a critical time for growers of fruit and vegetables to decide the accurate period of crop harvesting. Fresh produce is normally ready for harvest when it has developed to the ideal condition for consumption and the condition is usually referred to as harvest maturity. Harvest maturity thus refers to the time when the “fruit” is ready to harvest and the time required to reach market. The harvesting should be done earlier than its ideal maturity for proper marketing.

Most growers decide harvesting time for different commodities by looking and sampling. Judgments are based on colour, size and shape (Sight); texture, hardness or softness (Touch); odour/aroma (Smell); sweetness, sourness, bitterness (Taste) etc. Experience is the best guide for this kind of assessment. Harvest maturity can readily be observed in some fruit crops but it can be more difficult in case of some fruits like avocados remain unripe off the tree after maturity.

1. MATURITY INDICES

Maturity indices (right time of harvesting) are quality factors that give clues as to when a product should be harvested to allow marketing flexibility and ensure the attainment of minimum acceptable quality to the user. It also refers to the set of criteria used to determine the stage of maturity for harvesting the horticultural crops. Commodities harvested either pre-mature or too late are more susceptible to postharvest physiological disorders, diseases and have poor shelf life than harvested at right stage of maturity. The pickers/ handlers are trained in methods of identifying produce that is ready for harvest. However, optimum harvesting stages depends upon type of produce and their final use. Horticultural crops may be harvested at two main maturity levels i.e., physiological maturity and commercial or horticultural maturity. Therefore, the proper stage/maturity indices for harvesting of all horticultural crops should be identified for their implementation during harvesting. Horticultural maturity in relation to developmental stages of the plants is depicted in Fig 3.1.

I. INTRODUCTION

The fruits and vegetables we eat and flowers and ornamentals we enjoy are biological entities. They breath, produce heat, perspire, are easily damaged, get diseases and finally die. These carry on processes characteristics of all living things before or after harvest to perform the metabolic activities:

1. to maintain cellular organization
2. to transport metabolites around the tissue and
3. to maintain membrane permeability.

I. INTRODUCTION

Horticultural crops include fruits, vegetables, flowers, plantation crops, spices, and medicinal and aromatic plants have emerged as a major economic activity in India. It contributes 30% GDP from 11.73 % of its arable land area. Horticulture crops cover over 23.4 million hectares of area, which is approximately 12.7% of the total gross cropped area of the country and contributes 18-20% of the gross value of India’s agricultural output (NHB, 2013). India is the world’s second largest fruit and vegetable producing country accounting for 77.7 million metric tonnes of fruit and 159.5m M tonnes of vegetables (NHB, 2013). Besides, about 5.66 million tonnes of loose flowers, spices, mushroom and aromatic plants are also produced. The country produces 41% of world mangoes, 23% banana, 24% cashew nut, 36% green peas, 10% onion and 30% cauliflower and accounts for 12% of world fruit and 13.25% of vegetable production (NHB, 2013). Owing to wide diversity of agro climatic conditions, almost all types of temperate (apple, peach, plum, apricot, cherries and nuts), subtropical (mango, guava, papaya, etc), tropical (banana, pineapple etc), arid fruit (ber and aonla), plantation crops (coconut, cashewnut and arecanut) and diverse variety of vegetables are grown in India. The export of fresh fruit and vegetables from India in 2006-07 was estimated at 9.84 Lakh tonnes valued at Rs 2411.70 crores. Mango, grapes, apple, onion, potato, green vegetables like okra, bitter gourd and green chillies were the major items of export. Similarly, India exported 5.97 Lakh tonnes of processed foods comprising of mango pulp, juices, concentrates, dried and processed vegetables, pickle and chutney, alcoholic and non-alcoholic beverages worth Rs 2818.1 crores (APEDA, 2012) (Table 1 to 3).

1. INTRODUCTION

Landscaping is a branch of ornamental horticulture having aesthetic and beautifying value which freshens up the atmosphere, enhances the look of the environment and improves beauty of land. In the area of landscaping, it is beneficial to know about ground covers (grasses etc), hedging plants, and focus plants that will complement one another.

A garden by definition is a piece of land devoted to growing flowers, fruits, vegetables, shrubbery and turf. Gardens brighten their surroundings and they add to the beauty of the landscape. The types of flowers that can be grown in a garden depend on the size of the garden, its location and the amount of sunshine and shade it gets.

1. INTRODUCTION AND IMPORTANCE

Flower arrangement is a very old art. In India, the flowers have been earlier arranged in temples and during festivities. The first rules of ikebana were laid down in Japan more than a thousand years ago. Flowers have been widely used for interior decoration, but they were cut from the garden and simply massed into water-filled containers to brighten the home. The beauty of the display relied upon the blooms themselves rather than the aesthetic appeal of the design. Even at homes and venues of festivals/functions/on auspicious occasions, flowers are used in a big way in the form of garlands, wall hangings, and floor decorations. Flower arrangements grace table tops, window sills, corners, fire places, and so on to suit the occasion.

Flower arrangement may be defined as the art of organizing and grouping together plant materials (flowers, foliage, fruits, twigs etc) to achieve harmony of form, colour and texture, thereby adding cheer, life and beauty to the surroundings.

Various types of arrangements are chosen, as appropriate to the area and occasion. Medium sized ‘round’ arrangements are often provided at the guest relations executives’ desk in the lobby and on coffee tables in the lounges. In most five-star hotels, one can see huge, spectacular arrangements in the loggies. Table arrangements for conferences must be low so that guests may see over them. At informal banquets, large arrangements may be seen. At wedding banquets, wall arrangements using gerberas are very popular, now a days. On special occasions and festivals, a large amount of flowers is required for making up various types of arrangements. The extent to which flowers are used in hotel interiors depends on the degree of luxury provided, the number of special functions held.

The housekeeper is responsible for all flower arrangements and their placement. Simple arrangements such as a bud in a vase can be done. Alternatively, flower arrangements may be provided on contract, in which case the arrangements are brought in and taken away at agreed times and little or no floral work is carried out on the premises. Arrangements like running water, containers, buckets, vases, scissors and flower pots are important.

1. INTRODUCTION

Annuals are the group of plants that complete their life cycle in one season or in one year during which they grow, flower and produce seed; and after this they wither out. A true annual (like zinnia) is a plant that will grow from seeds, flower, produce seeds and die in one season. Zinnias provide a succession of flowers for summer colour in any sunny location with good soil drainage

The term annual when applied to herbaceous ornamentals refers to plants that are grown for only one season. A true annual completes its life cycle (bears seed) in one season and has an extended bloom span lasting (in most cases) throughout the summer. Some plants that we use like annuals in the garden actually are herbaceous perennial plants that bloom the first season but are unable to survive the winter climate.

Some varieties will self-sow or naturally reseed themselves. This may be undesirable in many flowers because the parents of this seed are unknown and hybrid characteristics get lost. Plants will scatter everywhere instead of growing in their designated spot. Examples: Alyssum, Petunias and Impatiens. Impatiens flowers are currently the most popular annuals and are unsurpassed for abundant flowers in a shady garden. Some perennials, which are plants that live from year to year are classed with annuals because they are not winter-hardy and must be set out every year. Examples are begonias and snapdragons.

Typically, the annuals we think are as loving the heat of summer, but there are some popular annual plants that prefer the cool of spring and fall. Examples: pansies, snapdragons, ornamental cabbage and kale. These plants actually grow more lush and vigorous when the weather is cool not hot and dry; therefore, they are often offered for sale in early spring.

1. INTRODUCTION

Medicinal plants constitute considerably a large component of natural vegetation. Several of these species are in great demand for domestic consumption as well as for commercial use by the herbal industry. About 800 species are estimated to be in trade with a turnover of Rs.4000 crores per year. This high demand by the herbal industry has put enormous pressure on the wild populations leading to destructive collection of the produce as maximum species of medicinal plants are wild.

A medicinal plant is as any plant which contains substances that can be used for therapeutic purposes or which are precursor for chemo- pharmaceutical synthesis. The medicinal plants are useful as a drug or therapeutic agent, having different medicinal values in form of active ingredient. Medicinal plants may therefore be defined as a group of plants that possess some special properties or virtues which make them important as drugs, therapeutic agents and for medicinal purposes.

Medicines from India are used by about 60 per cent of the world’s population. These are not only used for primary health care not just in rural areas in developing countries, but also in developed countries as well where modern medicines are predominantly used. While the traditional medicines are derived from medicinal plants, the herbal drugs are prepared from medicinal plants only. Use of plants as a source of medicine has been an ancient practice and is an important component of the health care system in India. There are about 45,000 medicinal plant species in India, with concentrated spots in the region of Eastern Himalayas, Western Himalayas, Western Ghats and Andaman & Nicobar Island. India is the largest producer of medicinal herbs and is called the botanical garden of the world. In rural India, 70 per cent of the population depends on the traditional type of medicine, the Ayurveda. Ayurveda and Kabiraji (herbal medicine) are two important forms of alternative medicine that is widely available in India. It is estimated that about 80,000 species of plants are utilized in some form or other by the different systems of Indian medicine. Many herbs and spices are used in Indian cooking, such as onion, garlic, ginger, turmeric, clove, cardamom, cinnamom, cumin, coriander, fenugreek, fennel, ajowan (ajwain), anise, amchur, bay leaf, hing (asafoetida) etc. Ayurvedic medicine uses all of these either in diet or as a medicine.

1. DEFINITIONS

Various definations of weed have been proposed. Weed is defined as a valueless plant growing wild, especially one that grows on cultivated ground to the exclusion or injury of the desired crop. Weed means any undesirable or troublesome plant, especially one that grows profusely where it is not wanted. The weed have also been defined a plant considered undesirable. Weeds are commonly unwanted plants in human-controlled settings, such as farm fields, gardens, lawns and parks. A weed may be any plant that grows or reproduces aggressively, or is outside its native habitat. Some plants that often are considered to be weeds are Bermuda grass, creeping Charlie, dandelion, golden rod, poison ivy, ragweed, wild carrot, wood sorrel, nutsedge etc.

1. INTRODUCTION

Exotic means anything of foreign origin and something not of native growth. Exotic vegetables are those species introduced to a country or location. Broccoli, Brussels sprout, Knol- Khol, Red Cabbage, Lettuce, Asparagus, Baby Sweet Corn, Chive, Garden beet, Kale, Swiss chard, Parsley, Parsnip, Chinese cabbage and Leek are important exotic vegetables. These generally require cool temperature.

Due to increasing foreign culture and increasing living standards, the demand of exotic vegetables is continuously increasing in cosmopolitan cities and five star hotels. These are good in taste and have high nutritive value. Most of the exotic vegetables can be used in salad and soups. These crops are very remunerative.

In urban areas only few part time grower devote time to the production of exotic vegetable. Exotic vegetable farming is profitable venture that require little capital and become source of livelihood to the farmer. The increase in their output level and profit will contributing to food security in the country. About 50% world population living in the cities. The rapid urbanization poses new challenges for food security. It is hard for most of the cities in the developing countries to provide sufficient employment for rapid increasing population. Some district of Maharashtra like Pune, Nasik & Satara now growing exotic vegetables like asparagus and broccoli. Cherry tomato, leek, lettuce, red cabbage & baby corn are also important as exotic vegetables.

In HP cultivation of Exotic Vegetable like asparagus, broccoli, lettuce, leek, chinese cabbage, snow pea, and parsley start picking up in Theog, Matyana, Saproon Valley, Sirmour, Katrain, Manali, Narkanda & Sanj Valley. These vegetables are beneficial for health as they are rich in phyto-chemicals and neutraceuticals. India is endowed with a wide range of tropical, sub-tropical and temperate agroclimatic conditions, therefore almost all kinds of vegetable crops grown around the world can be cultivated in one or the other corner. There is a lot of potential for exotic vegetables for domestic and export market. Important one are:

1. INTRODUCTION

Vegetables differ widely from field crops in their requirements for land preparation and cultural practices because of their differences in their morphologies, growth habit, and socio-economic values. In preparing land for vegetable production, ecological location, mode of cropping, season, crop disposition and the type of vegetables to be grown are taken into consideration.

Clearing: It is often necessary to remove the vegetation cover when a piece of land is to be used for vegetable production. The land clearing methods may involve removing the remains of previous crops and undergrowth, cutting back the woody shrubs and trees and burning them.

Levelling: When the site has been cleared, uneven land may have to be leveled. This facilitates the process of ploughing, harrowing ridging and layout of the site.

Land preparation and layout depend on

1. INTRODUCTION

Integrated Nutrient Management (INM) has become a widely practiced Hi-tech horticulture practice. It refers to maintenance of soil fertility and plant nutrient supply to an optimum level for sustaining the desired crop productivity through optimization of the benefits from all possible sources of plant nutrients in an integrated manner. Another important aspect of INM is for enhancing of the fertilizer use efficiency (FUE) by proper placement of fertilizer in close proximity to the rhizosphere of the highest root activity. Today, Integrated Nutrient Management has become one of the common practices among progressive horticulture producers.

INM involves proper combination of chemical fertilizers, organic manures, crop residues, nitrogen fixing crops and bio-fertilizers suitable to the system of land use under ecological, social and economic conditions. INM involves maintenance or adjustment of plant nutrient supply to an optimum level for sustaining the desired crop productivity.

1. INTRODUCTION

Leaf and soil analysis are the tools to estimate the fertilizer needs of fruit crops. Leaves are selected for analysis because:

• Leaf is the principal site of plant metabolism.
• The changes in nutrient supply are reflected in the leaf composition.
• The changes are more pronounced at certain stages of development.
• The concentration of nutrients in the leaf at specific growth stages are related to performance of the plant.

1. INTRODUCTION

Canopy management is the manipulation of tree canopy to optimize its production potential with excellent quality fruits. In many fruit crops, increase in production with enhanced fruit quality is obtained by managing canopies of short statured trees. Small trees capture and utilize the sunlight properly and results into better fruit production.

The fruit growers desire to regulate the growth and development of their trees in a scientific manner. This is because it is not always wise to allow a plant to develop naturally, since unwanted portions may develop which may affect the production. The removal of unwanted parts of plant is thus known as pruning. The practice of pruning as and when performed in an appropriate manner, keeps the plant in such shape and condition as to yield fruits of desired quality.

Canopy management depends on the nature and growth pattern of plant, number of plants /ha and pruning techniques used by the farmers in their fields. Pruning should be done when trees are young to establish their basic shapes and sizes, and continued as trees mature. Trees that grow too close together shade out the lower canopy portions and in turn decrease their fruit setting. These trees are required to be pruned to allow the light to reach the top and lower sides of trees. Pruning is done either to encourage the growth (thinning) or to reduce the tree size (heading back). Thinning of bearing trees encourages vegetative growth, and removes interior branches, encouraging the outward growth of plants. Heading back reduces the outward canopy growth through topping and hedging of branches.

1. DEFINITIONS

Propagation : Propagation of plants may be defined as the controlled reproduction of plants by man to perpetuate selected individual or groups of individual plants which have specific value to him or it is the perpetuation of plants as independent units by means of seeds, bulbs, layers, cuttings, or grafts.

• Seed: A seed has been defined as a young plant packed ready to start growing when required.
• Apomixis: Development of seeds without the complete sexual process is known as apomixes and seed produced in this manner is called apomictic seeds.
• Seed dormancy: The embryo of the seed remains in inactive stage from the time of its development to the time it germinates. This failure of the embryo is termed as dormancy of the seed.
• After-ripening: Some seeds germinate fully when freshly harvested, but they germinate after a period of dry storage. The change taking place in such seeds are known as after- ripening.
• Embryo dormancy: Conditions existing within the embryo.
• After-ripening dormancy: Seeds fail to germinate when freshly harvested, but they germinate after a period of dry storage. Such seeds are known as after-ripening dormant seeds. This is due to the physiological changes taking place in embryo.

1. INTRODUCTION

The demand for high quality planting material is steadily increasing due to interest in vegetable gardening. The need of setting up plant nurseries to meet the demands of the people has been felt by small and marginal farmers as well as by gardeners and farm house owners. In order to meet this demand, there is ample scope for introduction of small nurseries which will serve to augment the incomes of needy sections of rural society. Almost all vegetables crops are propagated by seeds, except sweet potatoes, asparagus, garlic, potato etc., which does better if propagated vegetatively. Among the vegetable crops which are propagated by seeds, cucurbits, beans, peas, radish, turnip, carrots and leafy vegetables seeds are sown directly in the fields. Other vegetables like cabbage, cauliflower, tomato, onion, chilli etc. are first sown in nursery beds where seedlings are raised and then transplanted.

1. INTRODUCTION

Nursery management is the backbone of fruit industry. The nurseries will have to play vital role in planned work for increasing the area under orchard. They are indeed the hub on which the success of an orchard depends. It provides continuous supply of healthy and certified planting material. So, one should give utmost attention while raising fruit plants.

The fruit plants are the foundation on which an orchard is built. If the plants are reliable and of guaranted performance, they will be high yielding and will produce quality fruits. There are many nurserymen in several fruit belts of the country who multiply thousands of fruit plants vegetatively for sale. It is desirable to raise only reliable, true-to-type, disease resistant and vigorous and precocious plants in order to have success in the fruit development programme in the country. At present there are several research stations and progeny- cum-demonstration orchards, Govt nurseries and also private registered nurseries engaged in the propagation of fruit plants.

Stone fruits like peaches, plums, apricots, almonds and cherries liked by one and all throughout the world for its colour, taste and nutritional value and grown in all part of the temperate zone and lower hill area of the country. The common procedure to raise nursery trees is to grow rootstocks from seeds or cuttings and then to bud known suitable varieties upon them. The stone fruits do not come true- to-type when raised from seed and therefore, nursery plants are generally raised through vegetative methods of propagation either on their own roots by cuttings or layering techniques or on the roots of other plants (rootstocks) by budding and grafting techniques. Rootstocks play an important role in quality fruit production. The stone fruits are generally propagated on rootstocks rather than on their own roots to have an advantage of rootstocks, like growth control, precocity, cropping and resistance to insect-pest and diseases.

1. IMPORTANCE

Nutrients are known to influence each and every physiological process within plant system. A considerable amount of various nutrients has been reported to drain off every year with the yield, pruning wood and fallen leaves from the plant and soil system. Therefore, for successful fruit culture, assessment of nutritional status of an orchard assumes significance. The key to mineral nutrition of any orchard is the judicious application of fertilizers on the basis of leaf and soil analysis. The nutrients requirements of fruit trees may vary from crop to crop and includes the soil as well as foliar application of the required major and micro-nutrients. Low level of nutrient results in low yields which are much below the realizable potential. There are a number of reasons why better nutrient management in horticultural crops deserves serious attention. The nutrition management of fruit crops is important:

1. To obtain higher yields and higher returns.
2. To increase the returns from established orchards.
3. To help improving the nutritional standards of the people by providing adequate supply of fruits and vegetables at affordable prices.
4. To provide greater and better quality raw material for fruit and vegetable processing industries, and
5. To help earning foreign exchange through the export of high quality produce in fresh or processed form.

1. INTRODUCTION

Fruit production is not only the growing of fruit plants but it is an outcome of well planned orcharding system. The designing of an orchard for successful fruit production depends upon various physical as well as climatic conditions and resources which help in building up of fruit growing systems. An orchard is a long term investment, mistakes committed at initial stage of planning, selection of site and soil reduces the return greatly from investment, beside wastage of time and energy. Thus, a faultless planning with utmost care and attention become quite imperative while planning a new orchard.

2. PLANNING OF ORCHARD

Before undertaking the actual planting of fruit trees, it is advisable to plan the complete process/steps, which will enable the grower to provide not only the most economic orchard management, but also for the economic layout and location of roads, drains, irrigation channels, hedges and wind breaks. For establishing an orchard of fruits, the major consideration must be given to four important aspects like climate, site or location selection, soil condition and basic facilities (economic and market consideration).

1. IMPORTANCE

India is bestowed with a varied agro-climate, which is highly favourable for growing a large number of horticultural crops such as fruits, vegetables, root tubers, ornamentals, aromatic plants, medicinal herbs, spices and plantation crops like coconut, arecanut, cashew and cocoa. It has emerged as an indispensable part of agriculture, offering a wide range of choices to the farmers for crop diversification. It also provides ample opportunities for sustaining large number of agro-industries which generate substantial employment opportunities. India has emerged as the second largest producer of fruits and vegetables; with largest producer of coconut, arecanut, cashew, ginger, turmeric, black pepper and tea, among plantation crops.

The changing scenario encourages private investment, to go for Hi-tech Horticulture with micro-propagation, protected cultivation, drip irrigation, fertigation and integrated nutrient and pest management, besides making use of latest post harvest measures particularly in the case of perishable commodities. As a result, horticulture crop production has moved from rural confines to commercial ventures and has attracted youth since it has proved to be intellectually satisfying and economically rewarding. It is essential to appreciate the contribution of horticulture, landscaping and gardening in the hospitality industry. Aesthetic use of horticulture freshens up the atmosphere, enhances the look of the property and creates a lasting impression on guests. It also has a beneficial effect on the health.

Genetically modified organisms (GMOs) can be defined as organisms in which the genetic material (DNA) has been altered in a way that does not occur naturally. The technology is often called “modern biotechnology” or “gene technology”, sometimes also “recombinant DNA technology” or “genetic engineering”. It allows selected individual genes to be transferred from one organism into another, also between non-related species. Genetically modified (GM) foods are foods derived from genetically modified animals and marines. Genetically modified animals and marines are those in which specific changes introduced into their DNA by genetic engineering using a process of either Cisgenesis or Transgenesis. These techniques are much more precise than mutagenesis where animals and marines are exposed to radiation or chemicals to create a non-specific but stable change. Other techniques by which food animals can be modified are selective breeding and somaclonal variation. By this means desired quality of meat, egg and other animal products can be produced. But it is a common thinking that foods derived from genetically modified animals and marines are far from safe. They are likely to be contaminated by potent vaccines, immune regulators and growth hormones, as well as nucleic acids, viruses and bacteria that have the potential to create pathogens and to trigger cancer.

Organic meat food products are choice products for health conscious people. These are the products produced mainly in most natural way without using fertilizers, pesticides and growth regulators in their feed and fodders. In addition, meat animals are also reared without growth hormones, antibiotics drugs etc. and grazing of the animals is a prerequisite in organic farming system.

The term organic farming was first time used by Lord Northbourne. The term organic farming was derived from his concept of “the farm as organism”. It is a holistic, ecologically balanced approach to farming. In 1991, the European Commission formulated the first government system to regulate organic labelling. In India, standards for organic agriculture were announced in May 2001 and the National Programme on Organic Production (NPOP) is administered under the Ministry of Commerce. The concept of organic meat food products has been emphasized now a day due to animal welfare point of view, consumer’s conscious ness, less residue level of chemicals, antibiotics and drugs, Bovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSE), Foot and mouth disease (FMD), genetically modified food etc.

Organic meat food products as a whole are dependent on the life stages of the livestock like its origin, feeding, housing, health, breeding, transportation and slaughter. The other factors accounting for organic foods are its production, harvesting, preservation and processing. Inspite of low growth rate of organic red meat globally, growth in dairy, egg and poultry is increasing day by day. At present 1.2 million hectares (0.6%) of Indian land is producing organic products (Willer and Kelcher, 2011).

Meat and meat products industry is a sunrise industry in India having huge potential for upliftment of agricultural economy. India is the second largest food producer in world but the contribution of meat industry is still confined to localized handlers. So to uplift industry basic infrastructure, food chains, food security and safety along with standards and laws formulation and their implementations is today’s need. Standards are carefully drawn specifications with respect to a food product. These standards are mainly of three types i.e. government, trade and research standards. Government standards are formulated by the government of India or state government and also have the power to implement these standards while trade standards are implied by the individual company. Research standards are formulated on the basis of comparative study of the products by the researchers. Laws are the legislations enforced by the organisations either government or by autonomous bodies made under the constitutional acts of the country. At present numerous standards and laws are in existence in individual country or at international level. The need is to harmonize them as per the industry and trade requirement.

Domestic Organizations Involved in Standards and Laws Formulation

For the formulation, enforcement and control of standards and legislations at domestic level various organizations are of prime value. Some of these are:

Eggs are considered as Nature’s original functional food because they are abundant source of nutrients like vitamins and minerals. It contains valuable nutrients from the high-quality protein to significant levels of beneficial vitamins, antioxidants and other healthful compounds. The protein of eggs is considered as highest quality protein as compared to other animal protein sources which is readily available and most inexpensive. Eggs are good source of all well balanced nutrients for persons of all age groups. Egg is a unique combination nutrient like it is rich in protein and low in calorie. The nutrients concentration in eggs is dependent on breed, strain, species, feed, age, season, storage and processing methods.

The nutritional value of eggs lies chiefly in their proteins of good biological value; an average-sized egg (60 g) provides approximately 7 g of proteins. These proteins are rich in essential amino acids with a very good balance between these amino acids. So the egg protein can be regarded as a reference protein. On comparison we can say that 2 eggs provide as much protein as 100 g of meat or 100 g of fish. The energy value for an average egg (60 g) is approximately 376 Kj (90 kcal). The lipid content is 7 g, most of these lipids being contained in the yolk. Among the total fatty acids 2/3^rd of these are unsaturated. Egg also contains 180 mg of cholesterol and rich in vitamins (A, D, E) and trace elements (iron and zinc).