eChapters

Abstract

Molecular markers play key role in crop improvement. There are severalmarkers such as RAPD, SSR, AFLP, SNP, DArT and many more are available for their practical uses. From the past markers like RAPD, AFLP, and SSR have been used extensively in the crop breeding. Recently new markers such as SNP and DArT have become popular among the researchers of molecular biology for use in genomics-assisted crop breeding. These markers have been applied for study of genetic diversity, germplasm management, cultivar identification, genetic mapping, gene tagging and genomics etc. Though the conventional method of breeding willcontinue to play a primary role in the crop improvement, molecular marker technology is becoming one of its integral components. Agarose-based DNA markers like ISSR, CAPS, RAPD, SCAR and AS (allele specific) have the potential for faster and accurate breeding for target traits through MAS.

Hydrates carbons (saccharides) found in nature (animals and plants) are classified into three groups based on the number of monosaccharides found or released upon acid hydrolysis. Monosaccharides the groups of carbohydrates.
3.1 Formulation of Monosaccharides
The molecular formula of any monosaccharide (mono=one and saccharide=sugar) is Cn(H2O)n or (CH2O)n. Rhamnose and Deoxyribose are exceptions to the general formula of carbohydrates. Acetic acid (C2H4O2) and formaldehyde (CH2O) are not carbohydrates but have the formula Cn(H2O)n or (CH2O)n. Fitting and Baeyer proposed the formula CHO-(CHOH)4-CH2OH, which indicates the presence of aldehyde and five hydroxyl groups.
More than one monosaccharide molecule unites to form disaccharides, oligosaccharides, and polysaccharides. Monosaccharides, being simpler units, cannot be broken down further. Generally, they have two to ten carbon atoms per molecule (dioses to decoses). The monosaccharides may have either aldehyde or ketone groups. The one possible aldodiose (CH2OH.CHO) is glycolaldehyde (2-hydroxyethanal), but ketodiose is not possible since there are only two carbons. The glucose molecular formula C6H12O6 represents the number of C, H, and O atoms but not groups. However, the proposed formula, CHO-(CHOH)4-CH2OH, indicates the presence of an aldehyde and five hydroxyl groups. These simple sugars or monosaccharides have carbon backbones linked by single bonds with hydrogen and hydroxyl groups attached in an unbranched manner.

A. Morphological Examination of Bacterial Samples
Introduction
Bacteria are most widely distributed, the simplest in morphology, the smallest in size and difficult to identify. They are prokaryotic and a few are photosynthetic. Most bacteria are only 0.5 to 2.0 μm in diameter. Bacteria are generally rod, spherical or curved shaped. Rod shaped bacteria may vary considerably in length, have square round or pointed ends and may be motile or non-motile. The spherical or coccus shaped bacteria may occur single, in pairs in tetrads, in chains or in regular masses. The helical and curved shaped bacteria exist as slender spirochetes, spirillum and bent rods (vibrios). In this exercise the ubiquitousness of these organisms will be demonstrated in the air and water, on body and in mouth etc.
Materials
1. Petri plates containing nutrient agar
2. Sterile cotton swabs
3. Sterile water blank
4. Tube of nutrient broth
5. Materials for simple staining

Bacteria are morphologically different. This characteristic is helpful in the identification of bacteria. Routine study of bacterial morphology should include examination of stained preparations. Motility should be examined by hanging drop preparation. According to the requirement, certain cell structures may be stained. Stained preparations should be made preferably from fresh agar slant cultures. Smears of Streptococcus should be made from a liquid culture. Morphology of bacteria may be described under the following terms:

1.Shape: Spherical, coccobacillary, short or long rods, filamentous, comma- shaped, curved or spiral forms.

2.Size: Spherical are measured in diameter and rod-shaped in length and breadth. Measurement is expressed in microns (µ).

3.Sides: Straight, concave, bulging, parallel or irregular.

4.Ends: Round, pointed, truncate or concave.

5.Axis: Straight or curved.

6.Arrangement: Singly, in twos, in groups of four or eight, in grape-like bunches, in long chains, or scattered irregularly, may be in bundles, angular arrangements or in Chinese letters.

7.Pleomorphism: Bacteria may differ from their typical shape. Some of the older cultures may depart greatly from their typical forms, and may show spindles, clubs, and filaments, swollen and branching forms. Variation may be both in shape and size.

8.Capsule: May or may not be present. When present, size should be noted. This requires special staining.

Life forms are composed of one of two basic cell types : Eukaryotic or Prokaryotic. Generally, eukaryotic cells are larger and more complex than the prokaryotic cells and possess a membrane-enclosed nucleus; eukaryotic means ‘true nucleus’ (eu=true; karyon = nucleus). All plants, animals, fungi, protozoa and algae are composed of eukaryotic cells. Only the microorganisms classes as bacteria and the archaea are prokaryotic cells. Prokaryotic cells have no nuclear membrane and therefore lack a true nucleus. The latin prefix pro means ‘early’ and in this instance suggests the somewhat primitive nuclear structure found in bacterial cells. Eukaryotic microorganism are sometimes simply referred to as eukaryotes, and the prokaryotic microbes as prokaryotes.

Abstract

Multiflash drying (MFD) process is based on the application of multiple cycles of heatingvacuum pulse to a solid food. Heat can be provided by convection (from hot air), conduction (by contact with a hot surface), microwaves, or by a combination of these methods. Due to the moderate temperatures applied to the drying food, and the sudden decompression step (vacuum pulse), MFD processes allow obtaining crispyanddried foods with very good nutritional and sensory properties. Vacuum pulses cause food texturization, which depends on the pressure drop rate during decompression. In fact, the dried products are similar to freezedried foods, but with more open structures, which result in higher crispness. The dehydration can be performed in relatively short processing times, when compared with traditional drying processes (e.g. solar drying, airdrying, vacuum drying and freezedrying). The short process time indicates clearly that this class of drying process presents a huge potential to the production of driedandcrisp foods at industrial scale.

Muscle structure
• All muscles are composed of muscle fibres which are the structural unit of muscles
• In turn, every single muscle fibre is made up of numerous smaller components called myofibrils
• Functional unit of myofibril is sarcomere
Connective tissues associated with muscle
• Whole muscle is surrounded by a sheath of connective tissue called epimysium
• Whole muscle is divided into muscle bundles by perimysium formed out of connective tissue septa originating from the interior surface of the epimysium separating the muscle fibres
• The perimysium contains the blood vessels and nerves

Mushrooms are most ancient, best known and greatly admired fleshy macrofungi. Mushrooms are delicacies, much sought after and greatly valued foods. Wild mushrooms are mostly found in forests, tree trunks, pastures, lawns and road side during winter season and appear at surprising speed. Mushroom hunting or gathering is a popular hobby in Western countries. The wild mushrooms may be edible or unpalatable or poisonous. Poisoning by wild mushrooms is common and may be fatal or produce merely mild gastrointestinal disturbance or slight allergic reaction. The term toad stool is popularly reserved for inedible or poisonous mushrooms, but this classification has no scientific basis. This alarming term keeps many people away from these foods. It is important that every mushroom intended for eating be accurately identified. Mushrooms vary in colour, size, shape, growth habit, yielding ability and other characteristics.

STRUCTURE: Mushrooms are the fleshy fungi which constitute a major group of lower plant kingdom. Mushroom is the conspicuous umbrella-shaped fruiting body (sporophore) of certain fungi of the order Agaricales in the class Basidiomycetes but also of some other groups. Popularly, the term mushroom is used to identify the edible sporophores. The edible reproductive part consists of a stem and a cap. Gills found on the underside of the cap, are arranged like spokes in a wheel. The gills bear multiple spores which start new fungi. The sporophore emerges from an extensive underground network of fine thread like white growth known as mycelium. The mushroom, fruit body produced basidiospores at the tip of club like structures, called basidia, which are arranged along the gills of the mushroom. Beneath the mushroom, in the soil, is the mold colony itself, consisting of a mat of intercoiled hyphae, sometimes several feet in diameter. The mushrooms first appear as white tiny ball consisting of short stem (stipe) and a cap (pileus) which begins to open up like an umbrella. The delicate membrane or Veil (velum) enveloping the cap tears off, if allowed to develop fully, and lamellae (gills) radiating from the stalk into the cap become visible. These gills become darkened as the basidiospores (seeds) develop into millions and fall in the ground for starting their life cycle once again for second generation of mushrooms.

1. Introduction

Mushrooms represent a highly specialized group of fungi, mostly basidiomycetes, with production of fruiting bodies bearing the spores for continued propogation. The fruiting bodies vary greatly in shape, size, color, texture, structure and aroma (Rajarathnam et al., 1998). They are endowed with the unique ability to biodegrade cellulosic wastes, including lignin, and biotransform into edible fruiting bodies (Rajarathnam et al., 1992, 1998, Rajarathnam and Zakia Bano, 1990). Their chemistry is also varied comprising characteristic polysaccharides, phenolics, proteins, amino acids, peptides, lectins, fatty acids, minerals, and so on (Rajarathnam et al., 1998). The wide spectrum of compounds have endowed the mushroom species with a spectrum of biofunctional activities of medicinal importance and accordingly their role in human health are implicated through studies on chemical, cell culture and animal feeding experiments. Vast literature available on this subject is condensed for presentation here.
Fifty nine medicinal species are reported from Diaoluoshan Nature Reserve in Hainan Province, China (Li et al., 2003). A health food made from luminescent mushrooms (Mycena chlorophos) is described. The luminescent parts that emit light in the carpophore of the mushrooms are dried without thermal decomposition and pulverized (Sugimoto, 2006). Consideration is given to the health promoting properties of 3 types of Asian fungi, namely, shiitake (Lentinus edodes), reishi (Ganoderma lucidum) and maitake (Grifola frondosa). Properties considered include beneficial components (e.g polysaccharides, vitamins, amino acids) and effects on the immune system (Anon, 1997). Auricularia auricula (kikurage or tree-ear) and Tremella fuciformis (shirokikurage or white jelly-leaf) are widely used in Chinese cuisine. Chemical structures of some of the polysaccharides from A. auricula and T. fuciformis, in relation to their medicinal and nutritional effects are described (Misaki and Kakuta, 1995).

1. INTRODUCTION

Mushrooms are edible fungi of commercial importance and their cultivation has emerged as a promising agro-based land-independent enterprise. There are about 20 varieties of mushrooms being cultivated throughout the world for food. In India, only white button mushroom (Agaricus bisporus J.E. Lange Imbach), oyster mushroom (Pleurotus spp. [Fr.] P. Kumm) and paddy straw mushroom (Volvariella volvacea [Bul.] Singer) are grown commercially. Of these, white button mushroom contributes ~90% of the total production. Mushrooms have been recognized as an alternate source of good quality protein and produce the highest quantity of protein per unit area from agro-wastes. Besides, they provide potentiality for generating employment, improving economic status of growers, help in checking pollution and earn foreign exchange.

Out of the total production about 45% of mushrooms produced are consumed in the fresh form while the other 55% are processed, with 5% in dehydrated form and 50% in canned form. This is because their shelf-life in the fresh form is very short and hence mushrooms are traded in the world market mostly in the processed form. Fruiting bodies (reproductive phase) of Agaricus are appreciated not only for texture and flavour but also for their chemical and nutritional characteristics.

Abstract

Mycotoxins are naturally occurring chemicals produced by fungi growing on grain, feed or food. The fungi that produce mycotoxins in grains commonly include Fusarium, Aspergillus and Penicillium species. The toxins can accumulate in maturing corns, cereals, soybeans, sorghum, peanuts and other food and feed crops in the field and in grain during transportation. The toxins may occur in storage under conditions favorable for the growth of the toxin producing fungi. Diseases in animals and human beings resulting from the consumption of mycotoxins are called Mycotoxicoses. These fungal metabolites are detrimental to the health of both animals and human. Toxicity ranges from acute death to chronic diseases, cancer and reproductive malfunction. Mycotoxin contamination of food and feed grains is a serious economic problem for grain producers and processors because grain contamination impacts market 

Fungi cause diseases in plants and animals and in such diseases, the fungi actively grow and invade the body of their hosts. There is another means by which fungi can cause harm is growing on stored food material that we consume and produce toxic metabolites referred to as mycotoxins (means fungus poisons). Food is particularly susceptible to fungal infections at almost every stage of storage or production. Mycotoxin is toxic substance produced by a fungus. The term is restricted to toxins produced by fungi growing in human foods or animal feeds. The growth of the fungi in food grains leading to physical spoilage of grains and toxin production is a serious problem in developing countries. Their occurrence in food and feed has both economic and health implications, as the toxic effects in human beings, animals and other living systems were well established. The effects of poisoning by mycotoxin are referred to as mycotoxicoses.

Naïve panel: It refers to the sensory evaluation panel that has not been trained specifically regarding the product evaluation being undertaken in the study. It is untrained panel of sensory evaluation.

Nano technology: It is the art of manipulating materials on an atomic or molecular scale to build microscopic devices. The word “nano’ meaning ‘dwarf” in Greek language refers to dimension / magnitude of the material / particle in the order of 10-9. Nanotechnology is nothing but manipulating of particles into very small particles called nano-particles. These particles have dimensions in the scale of nano-meter and used to design / build materials and devices. Nanotechnology has been provisionally defined as relating to materials, systems and processes which operate at a scale of 100 nanometers (nm) or less. It will allow many things to be manufactured at low cost and with no pollution. The concept of nanotechnology was first given by Nobel Laureate physicist Richard P. Feynman in Southern California in 1959.

NaNO2 : Pink colour of cured meat is preserved by NaNO2 . It is effective against Cl. Botulinosm

Nanogram: It is one billionth of a gram.

Nano-materials: Nano material have been defined as having one or more dimensions measuring 100 nm or less, or having at least one dimension at this scale which affects the materials behavior and properties (Plate 438).

The term nanotechnology was coined by Prof Taniguchi, Japan in 1974 during conference of the Japanese Society of Precision Engineering. Nano technology is a domain of scientific activity oriented on synthesis, characterization, application of devices and materials and technical systems which functions at nano structures having 1 to 100 nm size. Prof R. Feynman American Physicist and Nobel Prize winner was the first person pointed out the importance and promising outlook for nano particles during his lecture entitled “There’s Plenty of Room at the Bottom. An Invitation to Enter a New Field of Physics,” delivered on December 29th 1959 at the California Institute of Technology. He pointed out that “... when we have some control of the arrangement of things on a small scale we will get an enormously greater range of possible properties that substances can have, and of different things that we can do ... The problems of chemistry and biologycan be greatly helped if our ability to see what we are doing, and to do things on an atomic level, is ultimately developed”. Later scientists realized the potential of nano particulate materials during the last decade has tremendous advancement in nano research. Governments and private sectors of the world invested huge sums to reap the benefits from novel applications of nano materials.

Nanotechnology: The principle of nano technology is that the material with known properties and functions at normal size exhibit different behaviour and functions at nano scale. By decreasing the size of the material the surface area per unit material will increase enormously and this helps greater interactions with reactive sites. Nano technology implied that the process of fabricating and/ or controlling the material sized between 1 to 100nm.

Fundamentals of Nanotechnology in Packaging • Overview of Nanotechnology in Packaging: Nanotechnology in packaging refers to using materials manipulated at an extremely small scale (1-100 nanometers) to boost the performance and capabilities of packaging. Techniques like nanoparticles, nanofibers, and nanocomposites are integrated into packaging materials to improve their physical properties, prolong shelf life, and introduce new functions like antimicrobial features. Mechanisms and Key Materials • Nanoparticles: Small particles added to packaging to enhance strength, f lexibility, and barrier properties. Common types include silver, titanium dioxide, and zinc oxide nanoparticles. • Nanofibers: Made from substances such as chitosan, cellulose, or polymers, these fibers increase strength and are useful in active packaging coatings. • Nanoclays: Dispersed in polymers, these increase resistance to gases and moisture, enhancing barrier performance

Fruits and vegetables are perishables and the post-harvest losses from the point of production at the farm gate till it reaches the consumers is estimated as 30-35 per cent which constitute a major economic drain of more than 33 billion USD equivalent to Rs 2,40,000 crores annually. In order to reduce the losses at various stages, nanotechnologies have come as potential strategies to minimize the losses while improving the marketability and profitability of perishables. One of the plants derived natural compounds “hexanal” which is known to extend the shelf-life of fruits when it is used as a pre-harvest spray or post-harvest dip as a nano-emulsion. Since, it is a highly volatile compound, efforts were undertaken to entrap the compound in the polymer-based nano f ibres (as nano stickers) or as a cyclodextrin inclusion complex (as nano pellets) in order to preserve the perishables. Further, hexanal vapour was also evaluated to preserve fruits. In this book chapter, various nanotechnologies tested, evaluated and technologies developed over the years are elucidated. Overall, the literature review suggests that use of any of the nanotechnologies delivered as pre-harvest spray, post-harvest dip, nano-stickers, nano-pellets and vapour singly or in combination found to reduce the infestation of post harvest diseases, minimize the losses and extended shelf-life by 2-3 weeks that help the farmers to get lucrative prices due to the late arrival in the market besides significantly improve the productivity and profitability of orchards.

Introduction

Off late our understanding of the composition and functions of the human gut microbiota has increased exponentially and there is a great interest in producing healthy foods in particular that which have an impact in improving the gastrointestinal health such as probiotics, prebiotics and synbiotics. Many of these functional foods are dairy based and have been accepted greatly worldwide. Nonertheless, there has been a need for the development of nondairy probiotic, prebiotic and synbiotic products (Salmeron 2017). This has prompted food scientists and food industrialists to study the feasibility of applying other fermenting substrates such as cereals for the development of innovative nondairy fermented functional foods. The importance of including nanoscience and nanotechnology techniques for the creation of fermented cereal beverages that contain specific bioactive nanoparticles and their role in food packaging systems will be discussed.

7.1 Introduction

Food processing has become one of the most competitive sectors in recent years. With increasing consumers’ demands, food industry needs to keep updating technology. These efforts are focussed at improving the organoleptic quality and nutrition of food and improve its keeping quality. This drives the industry to look for newer technologies which include new products as well as new processes. Some of the new processing technologies include non-thermal processes such as high pressure processing, pulsed electric fields and ultrasound processing. Advanced thermal processing techniques such as ohmic heating, inductive heating, extrusion and infrared heating have also been developed. Innovative methods for improving food quality through irradiation, removal of heat and moisture from food are now available. Newer packaging techniques now help to improve shelf-life and attractiveness of the food products and cater to the biodegradability of the packaging material. Hence, there is abundance of new products that have now become part of our daily life.

Food nanotechnology has its long history when the first step of revolution in food processing and improvement in quality of foods was introduced by Pasteur to kill the spoilage bacteria (1000 nm). Later, Watson and Crick’s model of DNA structure, which is about 2.5nm, opened the gateway of applications in biotechnology. Nanotechnology is defined as the design, production, and application of structures, devices, and systems through control of the size and shape of the material at the nanometer (10^-9 of a meter) scale. Nanotechnology is one such technology that has the potential to revolutionize the food industry. Taniguchi first used nanotechnology in 1974 to describe production technology at ultrafine dimensions. The word “nano” means “dwarf” in Greek and one nanometer is equivalent to 10^-9 m. Objects of this scale are not visible through the human eye or the ordinary optical microscope. A nanometer (nm) sized particle measures one billionth of a meter. A human hair measures 80,000 nm while a DNA strand is 2.5 nm wide whereas a protein chain is 5nm in diameter. Nanotechnology can be applied to develop nanoscale materials, controlled delivery systems, contaminant detection and to create nanodevices for molecular and cellular biology. Nanotechnology may be defined as the understanding and management of matter at dimensions of roughly 1-100 nanometers. Unique behavior of matter at the nanoscale enables novel applications. Nanoscale science, engineering, and technology can be used for imaging, measuring, modeling, and manipulating matter at this length scale. Range of sizes of nanomaterials in the food sector and their relative position on nanoscale/microscopic scale are listed below.

Nanotechnology-based preservation employs materials generally measuring between 1 and 100 nanometres. Their high surface-area-to-volume ratio, adjustable surface chemistry and responsiveness to external stimuli enable highly controlled interactions with foods and microorganisms. Nanomaterials may deliver antimicrobial compounds, antioxidants and other active substances in a controlled or targeted manner. Silver, zinc oxide and chitosan nanoparticles can be incorporated into coatings and films to reduce microbial contamination while maintaining sensory and nutritional quality. The chapter discusses nanoencapsulation, nanoemulsions, antimicrobial nanoparticles and nanosensors for detecting spoilage and monitoring shelf life. It also considers effectiveness, controlled release, food applications, safety assessment and potential regulatory concerns associated with nanotechnology.

Introduction

The act of substituting food or drink with low grade quality ingredients thereby the f inal product will fail to the meet the regulation or standards and in most cases even unfit for human consumption (Augustin et al., 2009). With demand for profit based manufacturing market, there will be increase in points of adulteration with cheaper alternatives or inferior grade ingredients in the production of food or drink (Banti, 2020)]. Adulteration is highly prevails in developing countries such as India, where about 70% of milk supply is adulterated on day to day basis (Bittar et al., 2017). It is every nation and each individual’s responsibility to provide safe and nutritious food to the consumers.

Previous Year Questions

1. Write down the various programmes run by state & central govts for ensuring food security in our country. Briefly discuss the strategies for sustainable agricultural production (20M, CSE 2023)

2. How will national food policy help in sustainable food security? (CSE 2020, 10 marks)

3. Discuss the national initiatives for food and nutrition security. (8M, IFoS-2019)

4. What are the special schemes for providing food grains to underprivileged, destitutes and malnourished populations (CSE 2016, 12.5 marks)

5. National and international food policies. (10M, IFoS-2016)

Introduction

The much awaited new educational Policy 2020 approved and released by the Central Government on July, 29, 2020. A document which is set to transform Indian education system in most holistic way and will exert a long lasting influence on framing the Indian education system by addressing the vivid issues across the discipline and streams. The implementation of this policy will be under a single body HECI (Higher Education Council of India) well supported by multiple bodies like National Higher Education Regulatory Council(NHREC), Meta-accrediting body referred as Nation accreditation Council (NAC), Higher Education Grant Council (HEGC), General Education Council(GEC) also called Graduate attributes, it will formulate the National Higher Education Qualification Frame work (NHEQF). This council will take over presently regulating bodies of higher education like University Grant Commission, All India Council of Technical Education and National Council of Teachers Education.

INTRODUCTION

The discipline of Agrometeorology, an applied science is less than fifty years old. Its services are operationally used by individual farmers in developed countries, and by agricultural or development services in more than half of the countries of the world. Its contribution to agricultural production by examining forecast is sought in virtually all countries. In many countries, the respective governments have expressed the desire to use meteorological information to a much larger extent in day-to-day farm planning and operations. The climate database is used for the development of practical criteria in planning and management of irrigated and rainfed crop production system (Martin Smith, 2000).

Though a huge set of Agromet data exists in India, its utility has not been effective due to the scattered location of these data sources and the impediments for free flow of data to the users to analyze and interpret for real-time decision making in agriculture. There is also a considerable time lag between the actual observation and data availability. In view of the importance and the immediate exigency to centralize the database system for helping the researchers and planners, a central agrometeorological databank facility funded by DST from 1998 to 2003 and later by ICAR with the following objectives was established at Central Research Institute for Dryland Agriculture (ICAR), Hyderabad.

1. Introduction

Antioxidants are considered an important class of nutraceuticals which are associated with health improving properties. Antioxidants are compounds which when present in foods at concentrations lower than an oxidizable substrate, markedly delay or prevent the oxidation of substrate (Halliwell, 1999). They are increasingly applied in food systems to retard the oxidation process, particularly in lipid containing foods (Droge, 2002; Lee et al., 2004). The commercially available solutions to counter food oxidation are predominated by synthetic antioxidants such as butylated hydroxyanisole (BHA), butylated hydroxytoluene (BHT) and tertiary butyl hydroquinone (TBHQ), among others, which are increasingly rejected by consumers and legitimized by regulators due to long term health implications (Park et al., 2001). As a consequence, the development and utilization of natural antioxidants as alternatives to synthetic ones have attracted global interest among researchers.

The use of spices and herbs in foods was known since ancient times to modify or to improve the flavor. However, the antioxidant properties of only some of the spices have been recognized. Different spices and their extracts such as turmeric, ginger, fennel, rosemary, and sage, among others, are reported to possess very high antioxidant properties, owing to the content of biologically active compounds, which enables their food application (Madhavi et al., 1996). Exploitation of natural antioxidants in consumer goods is increasingly accepted and will gain momentum due to the rise of green consumerism. In this chapter, an attempt has been made to provide an insight into natural antioxidants and colors. Beginning with the source distribution of natural antioxidants, followed by review of extraction methods for their isolation from plant based matrices and bio-preservative properties in vegetable oils to delay rancidity. Lastly, a thorough collection of literature pertaining natural colors has been presented to potentiate the application of clean label ingredients in food systems. The application of natural antioxidants and colors in food products can vouch the food safety with value addition in terms of their nutraceutical properties.

Introduction

Fruits contain various beneficial compounds that possess biological activities and can be used as pharmaceutical nutraceutical products. Most of the fruits contain polyphenolic components that can promote antioxidant potential on human health. Wild Blueberries, strawberries, plums, oranges, grapes, cherries and mangoes are rich in antioxidant. Additionally, anti-inflammatory, antibacterial, antifungal and chemopreventive effects are associated with the various fruits. Besides polyphenols, other compounds such as xanthones, carotenoids, saponins also exhibit health effects. Fruit consumption is considerably increasing in the daily diet because they supply high levels of biologically active compounds that impart health benefits beyond basic nutrition. Fruits provide an optimal mixture of antioxidants such as vitamins C and E, polyphenols and carotenoids, vitamins, phytoestrogens, glucosinolates and anthocyanins. Diets rich in fruits may help to delay the ageing processes and reduce the risk of certain types of cancer, cardiovascular diseases and other chronic diseases. The combination of vitamins, minerals, phenolic, antioxidants and fibre seems to be responsible for these effects. The most dietary components in fruits acting as antioxidants are fibre, polyphenols, conjugated isomers of linoleic acid, D-limolene, epigallocatechin, gallate, soy protein, isoflavones, vitamins A, B, C and E (group of tocopherols), calcium, selenium, chlorophyllin, alipharin, sulphides, catechin, tetrahy-drocurecumin, seasaminol, glutathione, uric acid, indoles, thiocyanates and protease inhibitors.

Introduction

Pulses are annually grown leguminous crops that yield one to twelve grains/ seeds within a pod, and are often promoted in diet owing to their low cost and many beneficial nutritional effects (Craig 2009). The United Nations general assembly has declared 2016 as the international year of pulses (Oyeyinka et al. 2016). The Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) describes pulses as the crops that are harvested only for dry grain. This definition excludes crops that are harvested green as food sources (such as green beans and green peas), crops that are used only for sowing purposes (such as alfalfa and clover) and crops used primarily for oil extraction (such as peanuts and soybean). India is the largest producer (around 25%) of pulses in the world and the Indian subcontinent covers the leading area in terms of consumption of pulses. It was also suggested that India can also increase the production output by 30%, considering a rise in government support prices for stimulating the growth of pulses and in case of a normal monsoon season (FAOSTAT 2008). The mainly grown pulses in India include mungbean (green gram), chickpea (Bengal gram), urd bean (black gram), lentil (masur), pigeon pea (arhar), cowpea, horse gram and peas (Tiwari and Singh 2012). In the western countries, nowadays pulses are one of the preferred food sources of the population, owing to ideological reasons and interest in vegetarian diet.

Introduction

Functional elements are non-conventional biomolecules in foods that have the ability to modulate one or more body metabolic processes or pathways, leading in health advantages and well-being promotion. Research has demonstrated a connection between food, health and well-being functional elements. Consequently, functional elements have health-promoting roles connected with multiple progressive steps at various phases of disease control, from initiation to growth. They can therefore be implemented efficiently in disease therapy and prevention. Therefore, the borderline between food and medicine is becoming very thin at a moment when the role of a healthy diet in stopping non-communicable diseases is well recognized. Functional elements include plant-derived, non-nutritious and biologically active chemicals that operate in the body to avoid certain non-communicable diseases from occurring.

Food contains over 900 phytochemicals. One fruit or vegetable serving (about 120g) can contain as many as 100 distinct phytochemicals. Previously, functional elements were believed to happen predominantly only as phytochemicals in plant products including whole grains, fruits and vegetables. However, in animal goods such as milk, fermented dairy products and cold water fish, probiotics, conjugated linolenic acid, long-chain omega-3, −6 and −9 polyunsaturated fatty acids and bioactive peptides are also discovered. Usually, functional elements happen in various forms in food such as glycosylated, esterified, thiolated or hydroxylated materials. They also have numerous metabolic operations that enable positive impacts in the body on several illnesses and target tissues (Balic et al. 2020).

1. INTRODUCTION

The paradigm of world’s livelihood is built on the basic foundation of natural resources which includes humans, plants, animals, soils and minerals, water and air. But the very livelihood of these resources are at stake because they are strongly linked and dependant on each other. And to add, the material resource namely ‘economy’ has invaded the tranquil habitat and life of the community of natural resources. Thus the present crisis is challenging livelihood of each of these natural resources whether it is human, plant or water or earth and the element of economy is interfering with the natural recourse of human depending on water and soil; and human, plant, animal together are depending on soil, water and air. But when the livelihood of soil, water and air is at stake how human, plant and animal can survive; hence the design of livelihood of world has the essential ingredients of all natural resources.

We humans are selfish and concerned about our livelihood security only and try to over-exploit other natural resources and assumed themselves as the master of all natural resources. Practically, there is war going on between and among natural resources. The world could be better if each natural resource has its own right with prospects to safeguard its livelihood and all resources together with better livelihood could offer the lively world.

2. UTILIZATION OF NATURAL RESOURCES

We should underscore that none of the natural resources are in ‘plenty’ and that we should ‘economize’ on each natural resource to build together the world’s livelihood. The food security of humans can not be attained without plants and plant security can nor be achieved without soil and water and it is impossible to keep secured soil and water without economics of management.

In short, the livelihood security of humans is entirely dependant on all other natural resources coupled with the material resource economy. It is incumbent on us to initiate appropriate steps from gross root to policy levels to make the world better.

. Introduction Millets, once considered as humble and forgotten grains, have made a remarkable comeback owing to their numerous health benefits, sustainability, and resilience in diverse agroclimatic conditions. Millet consumption is gaining momentum globally and thus it becomes imperative to establish clear and comprehensive standards for these grains. The chapter gives an insight into the reasons why millet standards are necessary, the challenges associated with implementing such standards and advocacy for a concerted effort to promote these nutritious grains as staples in our diets.

Introduction

Society is dynamic. The requirement of society varies in course of time. During the life process human being faces lots of health hazards which are mostly due to intake of various foods. So people become cautious about the intake of food and think about the quality of foods which can protect the health of human being. In ancient times people made medicines from plant extracts to protect their health. In 1989, Dr. Stephen coined the term “Nutraceuticals” which is combination of nutrition and pharmaceutical. Nutrition is required for health and pharmaceuticals provide remedy for sickness. So it is a preventive approach. Nowadays, the definition of nutraceuticals has been expanded to include vitamins, minerals, herbs and other botanicals, amino acids, and dietary substance for human use as a supplement diet (Stauffer, 1999).

Nutraceuticals are dietary supplements made only from whole foods to augment health. Currently over 470 nutraceutical and functional food products are available with documented health benefits (Brower, 1999). The patients are much aware about the side effects of chemical agents in short and long term therapy. So to avoid medicine used for small diseases, new therapies came into trend with the help of nutritional approaches i.e. “Nutraceuticals”. The use of nutraceuticals becomes easier than pharmaceuticals since nutraceuticals does not require any animal verification for its use in human. Nutraceuticals,

Functional foods and Dietary Supplements are most important concept in food science. They have distinction amongst themselves.

1. INTRODUCTION

Wine is an ancient fermented product as revealed by the wine jugs recovered (Plate 1) during excavation from different places. Wine is made all over the world and wine produced in each region from different parts of the world has different characteristics. Development and implementation of practices and policies for sustainable growth of grapes and other fruits is the most essential component for the growth and development of wine industry. The science dealing with wine production, evaluation and consumption is known as 'Oenology'. For the introduction of wine, several aspects influence the wine quality are style, the consumer perception and finally, the marketing are taken in account. Factors related with fruit growing, ripening, micro organisms and other verification factors need to be considered in wine production.

Introduction

The gut microbiota is the complex and dynamic community of microorganisms that includes various bacteria, fungi and other microorganisms, proliferate and lead a symbiotic/mutual relationship with the host system. These microorganisms protect the host against pathogens by unique mechanisms, helps to maintain shape and strengthen the intestinal epithelium and boost immune response. Diverse bacterial metabolites can immigrate the host bloodstream and other parts of the body via various channels in humans and animals, such as gut-microbiota-brain, gut microbiota-skin, gut-vagina, gut liver, gut-bones etc. However, many aspects of modern lifestyle would alter the gut microbiota and lead to numerous diseases including inflammatory bowel disease, diabetes mellitus, obesity, and metabolic syndrome. Probiotics and other beneficial microbes exert many beneficial effects on their hosts by modulating the gut microbiota. While the term probiotic is reserved only for well-characterised strains with clinically proven health benefits, other beneficial microorganisms include, organisms responsible for the fermentation of foods viz. yogurt, kefir, kombucha, kimchi and many others that have been shown to have distinct health benefits. Interestingly, major group of these beneficial organisms belong to lactic acid bacteria.

Abstract

Though India is second largest producer of fruits and vegetables but is far behind in per capita availability of this protective food as compared to many developed countries. Floriculture and allied horticulture crop production (spices, medicinal & aromatic crops, mushroom etc.) have great potential to generate high income, jobs and new careers. Hi-tech horticulture is the need of all the developing countries and it refers to “the precise production techniques for efficient use of inputs at appropriate time and quantity for maximization of yield and quality of crops”. Various ways to make horticulture hi-tech include modern nursery management including micro propagation, protected crop production, high density planting including canopy management, use of agrochemicals, rejuvenation technique, interated nutrient management, integrated water management, integrated pest and disease management. Inspite of this, in present context, major emphasis has been given on clean horticulture production with bio-derived, renewable energy sources for developing a profitable CEA (controlled environment agriculture) that would help in sustaining the system, improving socio-economic status of growers and of-course environment-friendly.

Abstract
 
Technological advancement, increased urbanization, awareness and interest of consumer for variety products have given a great challenge to the food sector to develop inexpensive foods that are nutritionally superior and acceptable to the intended consumers. Keeping this objective in view, we have made an attempt to develop technology for variety products from wheat and corn and suitability of available varieties judged. With the emerging trends of food market towards fast foods, there are vast prospects for efficient utilization of cereals by exploring varieties products. A steamed bread (a Chinese traditional product) and Tortilla and corn chips (Mexican snacks) were developed. Steamed bread is defined as the product resulting from cooking or steaming fermented dough. Recipe and method for its preparation was standardized. Nutritionally rich steamed bread can be prepared by supplementing 10% level of chickpea and defatted soybean flour. Corn snacks have become a prime target of some consumer advocates and nutritionists who have referred them as a source of ‘empty calories’. But reality is that these snacks provide instant energy, as they are rich storehouse of nutrients. Process and recipe for the preparation of Tortilla and corn chips from Indian maize were standardized. The quality and acceptability of these snacks were worked out and found that these products were highly acceptable. Indian consumers have versatile taste, so these products will be readily accepted in Indian market. 

Noise has become a very important “stress factor” in the environment of man especially with regard to health. However, not much attention is being paid towards its elimination or control in dairy plants. The harmful effects of noise(s) in the workplace as an occupational hazard is really a cause of great concern. Apart from reducing the work efficiency, in the long run it causes serious auditory and non-auditory effects on the worker. Thus, it becomes imperative to set legal standards in workplaces to be monitored constantly to avoid or reduce the health hazards of the workers.

Noise and Noise Pollution

Noise is often defined as “Unwanted Sound” or “Undesirable Sound”. The “Noise Pollution” has been coined to signify the vast cacophony of sounds that are being produced in the modern life, leading to health hazards.

1.    UV irradiation is considered better than other irradiation methods in terms of

(a) Physical structure maintenance

(b) Chemical structure

(c) Sensory quality

(d) Microbial quality

2.    Irradiation with UV light is considered as

(a) Sterilization method

(b) Disinfection method

(c) Pasteurization method

(d) Cooking method

3.    UV treatment kills bacteria, viruses, fungi due to its effect on

(a) Metabolic pathway

(b) DNA

(c) Signaling pathway

(d) ATP generation

4.    Effectiveness of UV radiation on micro organisms depends on

(a) Species and strain

(b) Spore formation

(c) Culture and growth

(d) Both (a) and (c)

Abstract

Ghee means the pure clarified fat derived solely from milk or curd or from desi (cooking) butter or from cream to which no coloring matter or preservative has been added. It is the second largest dairy product prepared from milk and it is almost 35% of total milk production. Unfortunately, the producers or the middle- men involved in the ghee trade, tend to adulterate ghee with cheaper oils and fats like vegetable oils, animal body fats, hydrogenated fats and sometimes even the non-edible mineral oils, especially during lean season to earn more money. Recently, the problem of adulteration has assumed a very serious dimension. Such a situation has tarnished the image of dairy industry. Methods presently adopted by food law enforcing agencies to ensure the quality of ghee are mainly based on the physico- chemical constants, but all these methods have some limitations. So researchers are always in search of different innovative methods to check the quality of ghee.

Food technologies now have more sweeteners from which to choose than ever before. With the obesity epidemic and the public attention it currently receives, plus the increasing interest in foods with added benefits sweeteners that allow for consumer appealing labeling are of particular interest. These sweeteners fall into basic categories, those that are essentially calories free, often referred to as low-calories or intense sweeteners, and those, which are significantly reduced in calories, which may be referred to as reduced calories-sweeteners, bulk sweeteners, or sugar replaces. These sweeteners when used alone or in combination may permit such labeling as ‘low-calories’, ‘reduced-calories’, ‘light’ ‘sugar-free’ and ‘dose not promote tooth decay’.

The ideal sweeteners does not exist, it would be at least as sweet as sucrose and provide the same properties to a product as sucrose, with processing parameters similar to those of sucrose so that existing equipment can be used. It would be colourless, odourless and noncariogenic, with a clean, pleasant taste and have immediate onset and not much lingering. Solubility and stability are important. The ideal sweetener must be compatible with a wide range of food ingredients because sweetness is but one element of a complex food flavour system. Even sucrose is not perfect, being unsuitable for some applications.

Abstract

Probiosis has emerged in the early 20^th century after Ellie Metchnikoff proposed his hypothesis that organisms were reponsible for longivity of ethnic people of Balkan region of Russia and ever since it has grow into a major scientific field which has its applications extending into farming, aquaculture and prophylactics in humans. Vast research was carried out on this topic and Lactobacillus sp. and Bifidobacterium sp, are the two important genus that are highly studied and widely recognized universally as conventional probiotics. Apart from these two genus there exists many other bacterial species which have shown promising probiotic potential. Such non conventional probiotics are widely used in some parts of world as commercial food products with health beneficial effects, pharmaceutical products or being tested for their safe utilization in human beings. The present chapter tries to covers some genera and their potential and application in prophylactics.

1. Introduction

Vegetables and fruits are the next in demand for human consumption after rice and wheat, in all parts of the globe. Fresh fruits & vegetables and their value added products are increasing in popularity day by day almost in all the countries, because of their richness in dietary fibre, minerals & vitamin contents and for their medicinal properties. Maintaining agricultural produce quality and its evaluation are thus naturally important. Decisions concerning maturity and ripeness of fruits and vegetables are based mostly on visual inspections, which are subjective in nature. The quality of fruits and vegetables is mostly decided on the basis of size, shape, colour, gloss, flavour, firmness, texture, taste and freedom from external as well as internal defects. Internal quality factors such as maturity, sugar content, acidity, oil content and internal defects, however, are difficult to evaluate non-destructively. Methods are needed to better predict the internal quality of fruits and vegetables without their destruction. Recently, there has been an increasing interest in non-destructive methods of quality evaluation, and a considerable amount of effort is being made in this direction. But the real problem is how these methods are to be exploited practically on commercial scales and what are the constraints faced in implementing them.

1. INTRODUCTION

Fruits and vegetables are increasing in popularity in the daily diet of people of both the developed and developing countries. Product quality and quality evaluation methods are extremely important. The decisions concerning harvesting, maturity, ripeness and quality are based mostly on subjective and visual inspection of the external appearance of the fruits. The quality of fruits and vegetable is mostly based on size, shape, colour, gloss, flavour, firmness, texture, taste and freedom from external and internal defect. Many techniques for evaluating the external quality parameters are now available commercially. Internal quality parameters such as sugar content, acidity, oil content and internal defects however, are difficult to evaluate. Methods are needed to predict the internal quality of fruits and vegetable better without destroying them. Recently, there have been an increasing interest in non-destructive method of quality evaluation and a considerable amount of efforts has been made in this direction. The development of science and technology, especially of information technology has made available many non-destructive methods of analysis of materials which can also be applied to fruits and vegetables. The fruit industry needs non-destructive techniques for online sorting and certifying high quality fruit.

Non-destructive method can be classified according to the principle used to detect fruit properties; mechanical, acoustic, optical and Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (MRI) Techniques.

INTRODUCTION

Food processing as a technological regime is undergoing a revolutionary change in terms of conception, product and process design and energetics. The conventional approach of a food processor is to develop products with a long shelf-life in user friendly packaging systems. Food processors are usually bothered about sensory attributes and microbiological profiles without much emphasis on the fate of heat labile nutritional and nutraceutical components. The changing consumer perception is slowly but steadily leading towards emergence of novel technologies without depending upon conventional thermal processing. A few years before, non-thermal techniques have emerged for food processing and preservation, but these techniques were restricted to framing of fundamentals with regard to the inactivation of vegetative and reproductive bodies of microbes and the deteriorative enzymes.

Non-thermal preservation technologies inhibit microorganisms and enzymes without relying primarily on high temperatures. They are designed to preserve freshness, colour, flavour, texture and heat-sensitive nutrients more effectively than conventional thermal treatments. These methods employ hydrostatic pressure, electrical energy, electromagnetic radiation, reactive species or mechanical forces to damage microbial cells and disrupt essential biological functions. The chapter examines high-pressure processing, pulsed electric fields, cold plasma, ultrasound, irradiation, pulsed light and edible coatings. It explains their operating principles, mechanisms, applications and nutritional implications. These technologies offer promising alternatives for producing safe, minimally processed foods, although equipment costs, process optimisation and industrial scalability remain important considerations.

Food processing involves the transformation of raw materials into consumer-ready products, with the objective of stabilizing them to prevent negative changes in quality and ensure food safety. To consumers, the most important attributes of a food product are its sensory characteristics like texture, flavour, aroma, shape and colour. The aim of food manufacturers is to develop and employ processing technologies that retain or create desirable sensory qualities or reduce undesirable changes which take place during processing. Alternative or novel food processing technologies are being explored and implemented to provide safe, fresher-tasting, nutritive foods without the use of heat or chemical preservatives. The major non thermal technologies gaining importance are High-pressure processing, Pulsed light technology, Pulsed electric field, Irradiation etc.

High pressure processing

The application of very high pressures (upto 87,000 psi, 6000 bar or 600 MPa) for preservation of food substances in combination with or without heat is known as high pressure processing (HPP). This process is also known as high hydrostatic pressure processing (HHP) or ultra-high pressure processing (UHP). When compared to thermal processing, pressure treated foods have a fresher taste, better appearance, texture and nutritional value. High pressure processing can be conducted at ambient or refrigerated temperatures, thereby eliminating thermal effects and cooked off-flavors. The technology is highly beneficial for heat sensitive products. The first high pressure processing line was introduced in Japan for jam manufacture in 1990’s and has since been upgraded to several food products. A number of HPP products have been commercialized in North America, Europe and in China. Machines are now available with operating pressures in the range 400-700 MPa and capacities ranging up to 900 kg per batch. Since HP processing affect mainly the non-covalent bonds of the food, the quality characteristics of foods such as color, flavor and nutrients generally remain unaffected (Knorr, 1993).

Introduction

For the year 2016-17, as per the FAO global estimate, the food grain production has crossed over 2.6 trillion metric tons, while the steadily increasing the demand is anticipated to be approximately 3.3 trillion metric tons for 2016-17. Similarly,the global production of all horticultural commodities has crossed over 1.8 trillion metric tons. The global trade of these commodities is purely based on their quality, the demand for good quality produces increases day by day. The term “quality” is a broad terminology used to explain many parameters and differs from commodity to commodity. Usually, the term ‘quality’ is classified into internal and external quality. The external quality refers the external colour, size, shape appearance, uniformity, external damage, cracks and bruishness etc. These parameters may be common for both perishables and durables.

But, in case of internal quality, each and every parameter vary from commodity to commodity, product to product. For food grains, the internal quality refers to moisture content and other nutritional parameters like carbohydrate, protein content etc. But in fruits, the internal quality refers to internal pulp colour, TSS, pH, acidity, juice content, ripeness, other biochemical and nutritional quality parameters. 

Milk fermentation is process by which a change is produced in milk through the activity of microorganism. As milk leaves the udder it serves as a medium for the growth of many species and accordingly undergoes a series of changes, the processes producing these changes constitute the milk fermentation.

Fermentation of organic compounds, especially in the lack of oxygen leads to the rapid break-down of ‘biopolymers’ to produce ‘anaerobic food chains’.

Drying

Drying is one of the age-old techniques for preservation and value addition of food products. Generally, it means removal of moisture from the food products by evaporation. It is aimed at lowering the water content of food stuff, thereby arresting the growth of microbes, action of enzymes and other autolytic chemical reactions (Naidu et al., 2016). This preservation technique is predominately used for food materials which are regarded as “highly perishable”. The benefits of drying includes extended shelf-life, lower storage space, reduced packaging requirements, lower handling and transportation costs, off-seasonal availability and importantly diversified product for the ultimate consumers (Bonaui et al., 1996).

Fish drying

Open sun drying as a method of fish preservation is recorded in history by the primitive societies. However, open sun drying of fish has few draw backs which includes poor product quality, higher microbial contamination and complete dependence of weather conditions for drying (Bala & Mondol, 2001). In the later stages, drying developed into completely a controlled process in which drying air temperature, relative humidity and air velocity were precisely maintained at optimum level. The fish drying process is slightly different from other food materials mainly due to its gel like behaviour until considerable reduction of moisture. Moreover, significant amount of shrinkage takes place in fish during drying in addition to the other irreversible changes.