eChapters

This chapter introduces the chemical composition and nutritional significance of eggs. It examines egg proteins, yolk lipids, triglycerides, phospholipids, cholesterol, vitamins, minerals, trace elements, carbohydrates and pigments. The chapter explains the functional and high-biological-value nature of egg protein and examines bioactive components, digestibility and protein-quality indices. It also considers the relationship between eggs and human health, including the cholesterol debate, amino-acid profile and comparative protein quality. The chapter establishes the nutritional foundation for understanding eggs as an important food resource.

Synopsis

If the human being was born first, he or she needed food immediately to survive. Thereafter, human beings continued to need food and continued to eat food throughout his or her life. Hence, the relationship between human being and food is permanent and the requirement of food for the human being to be alive is everlasting. The paper provides the background, definition of right to food, and adequate food, historical events, legal perspectives, operational guidelines, and advances in its application and derives conclusion.

Food is a complex system of inorganic and organic compounds. These compounds are present in food in unique combination and uniquely organized structures, and therefore, every type of food has unique characteristics, nutritive value, sensory quality, texture, etc. Food items are always in physical, chemical and biological dynamics, however rate of change vary from food to food. Those highly perishable in nature undergo faster rate of spoilage as compare to those semi-perishable or stable. Foods are affected by nearly every variable of environment. Heat, cold, light or other radiations, oxygen, moisture/dryness, natural food enzymes, microorganisms, macro-organisms, industrials and agricultural contaminants, time, etc. - all adversely affect the foods resulting to its spoilage or deterioration. Spoilage may be referred to the losses in nutritive value, sensory desirability, safety and aesthetic appeal to the unacceptable level. Level of unacceptability is the subject of socio-economic status and policies of the state. A food which is of unacceptable quality for one society may be of acceptable quality for other society.

History reveals that food was the root cause of many wars and also the battles were won or lost over food spoilage and its control. Wars and the need to provide safe food to armies in the region far away from the areas of their production have always focused attention on the problem of food spoilage, and this valid today even. Some of the most important advancements in the technology of food preservation were made during the war-time. Of these, most important was the technology of preventing food from spoilage for months together developed by French scientist Nicolas Appert for French army. He won awarded money of 12,000 Francs in 1908 for this. The World learnt the art of canning foods in which the food is packed in a sealed metal container and heated sufficiently. He, however, could not explain the principle behind the preservation by canning. Some 50 years later, work of Louis Pasteur explained that the growth of microorganisms was the major cause of food spoilage which are killed in Appert’s method of preservation.

Introduction

Cell surface components such as adhesins, polysaccharides, and proteins play major roles in the adherence of probiotic bacteria to the intestinal epithelium, interactions that might lead to pathogen exclusion and immunomodulation of host cells. Probiotic bacteria have the ability to produce exocellular polymers called Exopolysachcharides (EPSs). These exocellular polymers present in the surface of many lactic acid bacteria, including Lactobacilli.The adhesive properties of lactobacilli are directly linked to their surface properties which are influenced by the structure and composition of their cell wall. The cell envelope of lactobacilli, bacteria, is composed of the bilipidic plasma membrane with embedded proteins encompassed by the cell wall. The bacterial cell wall consists of a thick multilayered sacculus made of peptidoglycan (PG) with teichoic acids (wall teichoic acids (WTA) and/or lipoteichoic acids (LTA)), exopolysaccharides (EPS), proteinaceous filaments called pili, and proteins that are anchored to the cell wall through different mechanisms (Figure 1).

Some species of lactobacilli possess an additional paracrystalline layer of proteins surrounding the PG layer, referred to as the S layer. These macromolecules together may play crucial roles in determining species and strain-specific characteristics of lactobacilli by influencing host-microbe interactions and microbial adaptations to the changing host environment. Several studies implicate that cell surface components, either individually or collectively, involve in host-microbe interactions. Lactobacilli beneficially affect the host in many ways by producing abundant variety of EPSs through the activity of extracellular glycosyl transferases. Approximately 30 species of lactobacilli are described as EPS producers. Among them, the best known are L. casei, L. acidophilus, L.brevis, L. curvatus, L. delbrueckii bulgaricus, L. helveticus, L. rhamnosus, L. plantarum, L. johnsonii, etc.

Introduction
 
The emerging functional foods market presents a considerable challenge to all manufacturers to keep abreast of the use of adequate packaging materials for their products. The interest in functional foods is intrinsically linked to the potential health benefits of their bioactive components. Preserving these bioactive components is, therefore, a crucial factor to providing the anticipated health benefits of functional foods. However, recurring failure in maintaining the quality of functional foods has been reported. Functional foods include a wide variety of products such as prebiotics and probiotics, dried foods (fibers, probiotics, tea, herbs, etc.), fermented products (yogurts, kefirs, vegetables), and fresh fruits and vegetables.

1.    Mass transfer co-efficient is expressed as

(a) m/s₂

(b) m/s

(c) kg/s

(d) kg/ms

2.    Heat is related to

(a) Flow rate

(b) Energy

(c) Temperature

(d) Momemtum

3.    The units of mass transfer coefficients are

(a) Moles transferred / (time x area x concentration)

(b) Moles transferred / (time x area x mole-fraction)

(c) Moles transferred / (time x area x pressure)

(d) All of the above

The term food processing covers an enormous field from simple boiling to the use of irradiation to predict the consequences on the nutritional value of fruits and vegetables. Generally, the food processing methods can be categorized as in intentional processing method (milling, peeling, washing trimming etc.), inevitable processing method (blanching, sterilizing, cooking, shredding, and drying) and accidental (inept processing or system). The nutritional losses associated with fruits and vegetable processing with different processing techniques and conditions employed. For example, the heavily processed products are although safe for human consumption but allied with reduced nutritive value. In this regard access to safe and nutritious food is considered as a basic right of humans as it is one of the ways to prevent various ailments by building better health and enforcing immunity. Escalating help awareness has guided the processes to opt for minimal processing food in recent years.
Food commodities subjected to minimal processing are capturing the market Suring to widespread concept that they might help in meeting the current requirement of vital nutrients. Development of minimally processed commodities especially fruits and vegetables have augmented at both retail and consumer levels during last years. Various organisations WHO, FAO, USDA boost up the utilization of minimally processed perishable commodities including vegetables and fruits to lessen the risk of cardiovascular diseases and cancer. Changes occurring in the eating habits have been quoted due to high anxiety for on time availability of these minimally processed fruits and vegetables. Sales of fresh cut fruits and vegetables continue to burgeon and food industries are persistently expanding primary because of consumers’ trend of health realization.

Botanically fruits are ripened ovary. It is a plant part that may or may not be purely derived from ovary of the flowers may be fleshy or pulpy in character, often juicy, predominantly sweet. With somewhat acidic taste, fragrance, aromatic flavours, fruits are generally not consumed during principal part of meals. Whereas vegetable is plant part which is less sweet, generally non acidic and consumed either cooked or raw during the principal part of our main meals. Vegetables may be fruit, root, stem flower, or leaf part of a plant or their modification.
Fruits and vegetables are valued in in human diet as an important source of protective nutrients like Minerals and vitamins. Apart from their nutritive value they add variety to the diet and improve acceptability of meal due to presence of different shades of colours, flavours, and texture. However, the major role in food preservation is played by their moisture content. For the same reason they are classified as
1. Perishable: Those which deteriorate quickly after harvesting such as tomatoes, mangoes, papaya, peaches, plums, juicy fruits and vegetables. They have high degree of moisture content and are highly susceptible to spoilage.
2. Semi perishable: These have less moisture content as compared to perishable one’s example 30 carrots, peace, green beans, apple etc. These foods are containing certain natural inhibitors to spoilage.

1. Preparation of Standard Sodium Hydroxide Solution

 Introduction

 When oxalic acid reacts sodium hydroxide, sodium oxalate and water are

form. Phenolphthalein indicator detects the end point by its characteristics

colour change.

 Apparatus

 Burettes, pipette, volumetric flask, beaker

 Reagents

 • Oxalic acid crystals

 • Sodium hydroxide – 0.1 N approximate

 • Phenolphthalein solution – 0.1 percent in ethyl alcohol

Procedure Preparation of 0.1 N oxalic acid solution 1. Weight accurately 1.575 g of oxalic acid into a 250 ml beaker using a weighing bottle. 2. Add some distilled water to the beaker and dissolve the oxalic acid with the help of glass rod. 3. Transfer the solution into a 250 ml volumetric flask through a funnel. 4. Wash the beaker 3- 4 times with small quantities of distilled water and transfer the washing into the flask. 5. Make up the volume up to the mark with distilled water and mix thoroughly. 6. Preparation of approximately 0.1 N sodium hydroxide solution 7. Weigh about 4.25 g of sodium hydroxide pellets and dissolve into 200 ml of distilled water.

Minimal processing of fruits and vegetables
The technological development and modernization during recent years have resulted in in organisation coupled with Lifestyle modification and changes in dietary habits. This development and Organisation have made it easier to meet the requirement of processed food. Processing of fruits and vegetables effects shelf life providing ready to eat food with similarities to fresh product. Before the food Industries shoulder a bigger responsibility of utilising a novel technology to produce safe food without detrimental effects on quality. The industries need to who built biological (enzymatic / fomentation and biopreservation and Engineering solutions like non-thermal high-pressure treatment, cook chill, microencapsulation, vacuum impregnation etc. For the adoption of de - constructive culinary techniques such as 3D food printing and Molecular gastronomy as well as developments in nutrigenomics and digital technologies may facilitate novel product format, personalization, and access to niche market. Concretely, e - operating movement from Naresh mint to health improvement in present conditions demand or shift from defensive market oriented offensive market developing strategies including collaborative networks with Research Organization.
It is also defined as any fruit and vegetable that has been subjected to different processing steps (e.g. peeling, trimming, cutting, washing, disinfection rinsing etc.).

Finfish and aquatic invertebrates are part of Fish Genetic Resources (FiGR) that has actual or potential value for culture and capture fisheries. Fish as a group, have the highest species diversity among all the vertebrate taxa. Out of 62,305 species of vertebrates recognized world over, 32,064 (~ 52%) are valid fish species; of which, the great majority (97%) are bony fishes, mainly teleosts; and the remaining (3%) are cartilaginous fishes (sharks & rays) and jawless fishes (lampreys and hagfishes) (Eschmeyer and Fricke, 2012). India is blessed with vast fishery resources, like exclusive economic zone (2.02 m sq. km), coast line (8,129 km), ponds and tanks (2.254 m ha), beels, ox-bow lakes and swamps (1.3 m ha), reservoirs (2.90 m ha), rivers and canals (173,287 km), brackish water (1.235 m ha) (Ayyappan et al., 2011). The country is fortunate to possess vast and varied fish genetic resources in different aquatic ecosystems and being home to 7.84% of global finfish diversity, with 3535 species of fish, of which 3035 are native species, representing 46 orders, 252 families and 1,018 genera. The 500 exotic fishes are also covered and majority of them are of ornamental fishes. Out of the 3035 native fishes, 1016 are freshwater, 113 are brackish water and 1906 are marine species and at least 258 species are of commercially important (NBFGR, 2016-17). India harbours a rich diversity of fishes and four out of 34 biodiversity hotspot areas of the world. The biodiversity hotspots i.e. the Western Ghats and North East India harbours maximum endemic freshwater fishes. The Western Ghats harboring about 306 finfishes out of which nearly 69% are endemic to the region (Gopalakrishnan and Ponniah, 2000). Likewise North East India, another biodiversity hotspot area, harbors about 240 fin fishes and nearly 40% are endemic to the region (Sarkar et al. 2012). In the past one and half decades more than 50 new species were described from these areas and more than 10 new species were described from the marine environment.

The exploration of facts about healthy and nutritious food has increased over the years. The advent of advance scientific tools has elucidated facts regarding the role of diet or nutrients in regulating gene expression (Sales et al., 2014). Various studies based on molecular interactions in food has revealed that many dietary components such as proteins, carbohydrates, fats, minerals, vitamins and phyto-constituents has the tendency to regulate gene expression.

Pectin
Pectin is a component of nearly all fruits and vegetables and can be extracted and used in food processing to form the characteristic gel in jams and marmalade. The richest sources of pectin are the peels of citrus fruits such as lime, lemon, orange and passion fruit or the pulp of apple (known as ‘pomace’ after juice has been extracted). Commercially, pectin is available as either a light brown powder or as a dark liquid concentrate. It is stable if stored in cool, dry place and it will lose only about 2 per cent of its gelling power per year.
There are two main types of pectin:
• High methoxyl (HM) pectin that form gels in high solids jams (above 55% solids) in a pH range of 2.0-3.5; and
• Low methoxyl (LM) pectin, which do not need sugar or acid to form a gel, but instead use calcium salts.

13.1. CONTAMINATION

MICROFLORA: The flora of living fish depends upon the microbial contents of the waters in which they live. The slime in the outer surface of the fish contain bacteria of the genera: Pseudomonas, Alcaligenes, Micrococcus, Flavobacterium, Corynebacetrium, Bacillus, Sarcina, Serratia and Vibrio. The same species of bacteria are found in shrimps, crabs, lobsters and similar sea foods. Oysters and Shell fish that pass large amount of water through their bodies, pick-up soil and water microorganisms in this way including human pathogens. Common spoilage microorganisms of fish include species of Pseudomonas, Moraxella, and Acinetobacter, found mainly in marine fish, and Bacillus and Micrococcus, found in freshwater fish. Fish may also contain pathogenic (disease-causing) microorganisms such as Salmonella and Escherichia coli. Pathogenic contamination is of special concern with mollusks because they are often eaten raw and as whole animals.

SOURCES: Boats, boxes, bins, fish houses and fishermen are the sources of contamination of these bacteria. The bacterial population ranges from few hundred to few million per square centimeter. Because of their soft tissues and aquatic environment, fish are extremely susceptible to microbial contamination. At the time of harvest, fish carry a high microbial load on the surface of their skin, in their intestinal tract, and in their gills. The type and number of microorganisms that live in fish vary according to the season, the species, and the natural habitat. Additional contamination may occur during the harvesting, handling, or processing of the fish. Harvested fish must be immediately stored in a low-temperature environment such as ice or refrigerated seawater. This chilling process slows the growth of microorganisms that live in fish and inhibits the activity of enzymes. Because fish have a lower body temperature, softer texture, and less connective tissue than land animals, they are much more susceptible to microbial contamination and structural degradation. If immediate chilling is not possible, then the fish must generally be sold and eaten on the day of the harvest.

The term growth as applied to higher organisms such as animals commonly is concerned with increase in protoplasmic mass and does apply to reproduction or to increase in number. In microbiology the term refers to increase in the number of organisms. Bacteria increase in number by a process of simple binary fission. Each cell increase in size and redivide into two similar cells. Each of the divide cells may in turn divide to become two cells. Each division produces what is termed as new generation of cells, theoretically there are 2,4,8,16,32,64,128,256 cells in the 2,3,4,5,6,7,8,& 9th generation, this is known as logarithmic growth – the population doubles with each successive generation. Under favourable conditions, bacteria produce generation within 15min. Under unfavourable conditions 24 hours of more may be needed for each generation. Generation time for E.coli is 17 to 20 minutes.

16.1. CANNED FOODS-PRESERVATION

Canning is a method of preserving food from spoilage by storing it in containers that are hermetically sealed and then sterilized by heat. The process was invented after prolonged research by Nicolas Appert of France in 1809, in response to a call by his government for a means of preserving food for army and navy use. Appert’s method consisted of tightly sealing food inside a bottle or jar, heating it to a certain temperature, and maintaining the heat for a certain period, after which the container was kept sealed until use. It was 50 years before Louis Pasteur was able to explain why the food so treated did not spoil: the heat killed the microorganisms in the food, and the sealing kept other microorganisms from entering the jar. Samuel C. Prescott and William Underwood of the United States set canning on a scientific basis by describing specific time-temperature heating requirements for sterilizing canned foods.

Most vegetables, fruits, meat and dairy products, and processed foods are stored in tin cans, but soft drinks and many other beverages are now commonly stored in aluminum cans, which are lighter and do not rust. Aluminum cans are made by impact extrusion; the body of the can is punched out in one piece from a single aluminum sheet by a stamping die. This seamless piece, which has a rounded bottom, is then capped with a second piece as its lid. The tabs used in pop- top cans are also made of aluminum. Bimetal cans are made of aluminum bodies and steel lids.

Canneries are usually located close to the growing areas of the product to be packed, since it is desirable to can foods as quickly as possible after harvesting. The canning process itself consists of several stages: cleaning and further preparing the raw food material; blanching it; filling the containers, usually under a vacuum; closing and sealing the containers; sterilizing the canned products; and labeling and warehousing the finished goods. Cleaning usually involves passing the raw food through tanks of water or under high- pressure water sprays, after which vegetable or other products are cut, peeled, cored, sliced, graded, soaked, pureed, and so on. Almost all vegetables and some fruits require blanching by immersion in hot water or steam; this process softens the vegetable tissues and makes them pliable enough to be packed tightly, while also serving to inactivate enzymes that can cause undesirable changes in the food before canning. Blanching also serves as an additional or final cleansing operation.

The Concept of ‘Clean Milk’ Production

Although milk is nature’s most ideal and perfect single food both for the newborn and the mature human beings, the possibility of it being a source of biological and chemical hazards cannot be excluded. In view of the immense dietary importance of milk, the need for production of safe, clean and wholesome milk is emphasized. The term ‘clean milk’ does not mean milk in which all visible dirt is absent or milk from which it has been removed; rather it does denote raw milk from healthy animals, that has been produced and handled under hygienic conditions; that contains only small number of harmless bacteria and that possesses a good keeping quality without being treated by heat. In other words, the unhygienic production of milk may lead to inferior keeping quality as a result of rapid microbial multiplication under favourable storage conditions apart from serving as a potential health hazard. These microorganisms cause the milk to sour quickly, putrefy and develop undesirable flavours, colour defects, ropiness and bitterness. On the other hand, the pathogenic microorganisms, which may gain entry through various sources, may cause many diseases to the consumers.

GENETIC ENGINEERING

Genetic engineering is a means of improving the food supply even before harvest or slaughter by improving yields, increasing disease resistance, and enhancing the nutritional qualities of various foods. Broadly speaking, genetic engineering refers to any deliberate alteration of an organism’s DNA. Genetic engineering has been practiced for thousands of years, ever since humans began selectively breeding plants and animals to create more nutritious, better tasting foods. In the past two decades, genetic engineering has become increasingly powerful as scientific advances have enabled the direct alteration of genetic material. Genetic engineering is alternately called as ‘ recombinant DNA technology’ or ‘gene cloning’. Genes have been cut and pasted from one species to another, yielding, for example, disease- resistant squash and rice, frost-resistant potatoes and strawberries, and tomatoes that ripen-and therefore spoil-more slowly.

Genetically modified organism (GMO) is a microbe or more complex plant or animal in which DNA has been altered for a particular purpose such as manufacturing proteins, making improvement to the organism, research into the nature of genes and biological process, correcting genetic defects.

Food packaging

Food packaging is an external means of preservation of food during storage, transportation and distribution and has to be provided at the production center. It forms an integral part of the production process and has an important function in the distribution of food. In today’s consumer oriented market, a package is an extremely vital link between the manufacturer of the product and the ultimate user. There is great awareness among the consumers today regarding their right to obtain proper quality and correct quantity of the product at a fair price in an aesthetic and hygienic package. Hence the basic function of food packaging is to protect the product from physical damage and contaminants, to delay microbial spoilage, to allow greater handling and to improve the presentation.

Need for packaging of fish and fishery products

Fish is a highly perishable food item and should be handled at all times with great care, in such a way so as to inhibit the growth of microorganisms. Fish is having a unique biochemical composition and its quality deteriorates rapidly and the potential shelf life is reduced if they are not handled and stored properly. The quality and type of packaging materials and the methods of packaging and storage are, therefore, of great importance for preserving the quality of fish. Fish and fish products can generally be grouped into fresh fish, frozen fish, thermally processed fish, dried fish and other value added fishery products. Each category requires special requirements for packaging and storage and hence different packaging materials.

12.1 Bactofugation
Using a specially constructed hermetic centrifuge, the Bactofugation® method separates bacteria—including especially the spores produced by particular bacterial strains—from milk. The RPM rises to 60000. Since their density is larger than that of milk, this technique has shown to be a quick approach of lowering the spore count in milk. Usually separating the milk into a portion more or less free from germs, bactofugation produces a concentrate (bactofugate), containing generally both spores and bacteria in general and amounts to up to 3% of the feed to the Bactofuge.
12.2 Dehydration
One can preserve the milk by dehydrating to different degrees. The “shelflife” of the dehydrated milk is longer than that of milk kept refrigerated and pasteurised. Concentrated or dry milk (milk powder) is milk from which some or all of the water has been removed. More than eighty-percent of milk is water. Eliminating water can help to preserve milks the best way. One can accomplish it freeze drying or by drum or spray drying.
12.2.1 Condensed Milk
Eliminating some of the water from whole or partially/fully skimmed milk, either with or without sugar, results in condensed milk. Generally speaking, “condensed milk” is “full cream sweetened condensed milk,” whereas “evaporated milk” is used for “full cream unsweetened condensed milk.” Variations in skimmed milk are labeled “sweetened condensed skim milk” and “unsweetened condensed skim milk.” For full cream products, milk solids have a concentration ratio of about 1:2.5; for sweetened condensed skim milk, that ratio is 1:3. Annexure-I has an exhaustive composition chart for condensed milk.