eChapters

The commercial aquaculture for crustaceans in India has become a huge success due to the introduction of new species, the improved hatchery production of seeds, scientific management of culture practices and the availability of good quality feed and other input. Introduction of new species like Letopenaeus vennamei has resulted in increased yield and productivity. The farming of this species has already been established in coastal Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka and Tamil Nadu and gaining momentum in Kerala and other states.

Similarly, farmers in both coastal and land locked States have gone for large scale farming of Giant Freshwater Prawn (Macrobrachium rosenbergii) popularly called “Scampi” which is having high demand in both domestic and international markets. In order to meet the raw material requirement of large number of processing units established for export and also to meet the domestic demand. The state of Andhra Pradesh accounts for more than 50 per cent of the cultured Scampi production and also in terms of area under culture. During the year 2013-14 the estimated production of L. vannamei was 406018 tons whereas the black tiger export of cultured prawn from the country was to the tune of 41947 tons and that of scampi, it was 1401 tons (MPEDA 2008).

Industrial processing of prawn results in huge quantities of waste in the form of head and shell. Since the exported shrimp products are mainly of peeled items, the shell waste produced is quite high. The head and shell constitute nearly 60% by weight of the whole prawn depending on the species and size. In India its availability is estimated to be 100,000 tonnes annually and it is the single largest fishery waste of the country. Crab shell and squilla are other important raw materials available from marine sector.

The significance of milk in human nutrition is now well established as it is considered as the best, ideal and complete food for all age groups. However, in spite of being so, milk can also serve as a potential vehicle for transmission of some diseases under certain circumstances. Moreover, by virtue of possessing almost all the essential nutritional factors, milk can also serve as an excellent culture and protective medium for certain microorganisms, which may include potential pathogens capable of causing serious health problems to the consumers. In this way, milk may serve not only as a vehicle of transmission of disease causing organisms, but it can also allow these pathogens to grow, multiply and produce certain toxic metabolites, thereby making itself an extremely vulnerable commodity from public health point of view.

16.1 Introduction
The fluid product “Cream” is defined by FSSAI standards as an emulsion of fat-in-skimmed milk that is comparatively rich in fat. It is derived by physical separation from cow milk, buffalo milk, or milk of any other species as defined under this regulation, or a mixture thereof. Cream, with the exception of sterilized variants, is composed of a minimum of 25% milk fat and is derived from cow or buffalo milk or a combination of both. It is a high-energy source that is abundant in fat and fat-soluble vitamins A, D, E, and K. The vitamin content is contingent upon the fat percentage in the cream.
16.2 Classification
Cream may be broadly classified into Market cream (direct consumption) and Manufacturing cream (manufacture of dairy products). The three different types of cream are:
i. Table cream/Light cream contains 20-25% milk fat.
ii. Coffee cream/ Whipping cream Contains 30-40 % milk fat, and
iii. Heavy cream/Plastic cream contains 65-85 % milk fat.
As per FSSAI Standards, Cream may be labeled according to milk fat content (m/m) along with product name as specified in item 1 of this Standard, as follows:
i. Low fat cream: Minimum 10 per cent. and less than 40 per cent.;
ii. Medium fat cream: Minimum 40 per cent. and less than 60 per cent.;
iii. High fat cream: Minimum 60 per cent.

Dairy equipment and utensils with which milk and milk products come into contact are the main sources of contamination in the products. By the use of effective equipment cleaning and sterilization methods on routine basis, milk of high bacteriological quality can be consistently produced. In composite milk plant, a variety of equipment and utensils are used. The use of stainless steel for the fabrication of dairy utensils and equipment provide highly polished and hard smooth surface that can be cleaned readily, apart from showing resistance to corrosive action of detergents and bactericidal solutions. Utmost care is taken to avoid dents and scratches, which could be the possible focal points of subsequent contamination. To overcome all these problems aluminium and stainless steel vessels and equipment present an ideal situation.

Labour is one of the biggest input costs for vegetable growers. Vegetable farming is labor intensive and time consuming. Frequently, it is associated with low yield and poor quality production. The constraints are high labor requirements for land clearing, ploughing, bed forming, mulch laying, seeding, transplanting, harvesting and transporting. Mechanization is interjection of improved tools, implements, machines and other equipments between man and materials (soil, water, environment, seed, fertilizer, pesticides, growth regulators, irrigation water, agricultural produce and by-products such as fruits, vegetables, and seeds, etc.)

1.1 Introduction Millets are small-grained ancient cereal crops that were renowned as one of the oldest sources of nourishment in prehistoric times. They are believed to have been cultivated since 8000 BC. Apart from providing nutritious grains, these crops are well adapted to the marginal and dryland ecosystems due to their climatic resilience, biotic stress tolerance, and capacity to flourish in the wild. Among the millets, small millets make up a distinct subgroup and comprise of finger millet (Eleusine coracana), little millet (Panicum sumatrense), foxtail millet (Setaria italica), proso millet (Panicum miliaceum), kodo millet (Paspalum scrobiculatum), barnyard millet (Echinochloa frumentacea) and brown top millet (Brachiaria ramosa L.) in India along with a few more cereals like teff, fonio, job’s tears and guinea millet in some other parts of the world. As fine cereals gained popularity after the 1960s, the acreage and significance of these crops began to decrease. In recent years the drastic climate change has made us to focus on underutilized crops.

India

Milk legislation and regulations are designed to prevent fraud and adulteration. But they now cover many factors that affect sanitation and public health. Milk generally is classified into grades according to the care with which it is produced.

1. INTRODUCTION

Fruits and vegetables are increasing in popularity in the daily diet of people of both the developed and developing countries. Product quality and quality evaluation methods are extremely important. The decisions concerning harvesting, maturity, ripeness and quality are based mostly on subjective and visual inspection of the external appearance of the fruits. The quality of fruits and vegetable is mostly based on size, shape, colour, gloss, flavour, firmness, texture, taste and freedom from external and internal defect. Many techniques for evaluating the external quality parameters are now available commercially. Internal quality parameters such as sugar content, acidity, oil content and internal defects however, are difficult to evaluate. Methods are needed to predict the internal quality of fruits and vegetable better without destroying them. Recently, there have been an increasing interest in non-destructive method of quality evaluation and a considerable amount of efforts has been made in this direction. The development of science and technology, especially of information technology has made available many non-destructive methods of analysis of materials which can also be applied to fruits and vegetables. The fruit industry needs non-destructive techniques for online sorting and certifying high quality fruit.

Non-destructive method can be classified according to the principle used to detect fruit properties; mechanical, acoustic, optical and Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (MRI) Techniques.

22.1 Introduction
Chhana is a dairy product that is produced by coagulating milk with acids such as citric or lactic acid at high temperatures, with the whey subsequently drained. Chhana is the term used to describe the curd that is produced as a consequence. It has a distinctive spongy texture, a mildly acidic flavour, and an off-white colour. Chhana is defined as the product that is produced by precipitating bovine or buffalo milk with sour milk, lactic acid, or citric acid, in accordance with FSSAI standards. The milkfat content must not be less than 50.0 percent on dried matter, and it must not contain more than 70.0 percent moisture. This product may also be prepared using milk solids.

Low fat chhana shall conform to the following requirements
1. The moisture content should not exceed 70.0 percent.
2. The milk fat content should not exceed 15.0 percent of the dry mass.
Additionally, it specifies that such low-fat chhana shall be sold exclusively in sealed packages. Chhana is primarily made from cow’s milk and is utilised in the production of a variety of Bengali sweets. The production of chhana in India consumes roughly 4 to 4.5% of the total milk produced. Sandesh, rasogolla, chamcham, rasomalai, pantoa, and chhana murki are among the numerous desserts that are prepared using chhana as a base.

Metabolic Processes in Bacterial Cells

All living cells are continually undergoing processes of replication, breakdown, synthesis and repair. The overall term used to describe these processes is metabolism and refers to all the different reactions that must occur in order for a cell to grow and reproduce. The pathways of metabolism are remarkably similar in all living cells. The differences that do occur usually reflect the availability of nutrients or the need for a cell to provide for a specific function. This may be secretion, storage, structural support, energy for movement, or reproduction. Our knowledge of many of the metabolic processes that occur in human cells has been derived from research on the major pathways that also occur in microbial cells.

Catabolism is the process of breakdown of complex molecules, usually with the release of energy. Anabolism refers to the synthesis of new or replacement molecules. This is an energy-requiring process. A metabolic pathway is a series of reactions in the process of metabolism.

The energy from the sun that is trapped and used to produce glucose is released when a molecule of glucose is broken down during metabolism. This complex process is called oxidation, or respiration, and consists of a number of interrelated biochemical pathways, including those of glycolysis, fermentation and aerobic respiration. Reactions that occur in the presence of oxygen are termed aerobic; those that occur in the absence of oxygen are anaerobic. Many of these reactions require the involvement of various cofactors as well as enzymes, and result in the production of energy which is captured by the synthesis of a small molecule called adenosine triphosphate (AT). ATP is termed an ‘energy-rich storage molecule’ because breakdown of ATP releases energy for use in other reactions in the cell.

What are Genes? Genes are linear sequences of nucleotides of DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid). Each gene consists of a specific sequence of nucleotides and is responsible for determining a particular characteristic of cell. Nucleotides consist of nitrogen –containing compounds called bases, joined to the sugar, deoxyribose and to phosphate. The nucleotide bases are the purines, adenine and guanine and the pyrimidines, thymine and cytosine.

A number of genes are joined together to form a structure called a chromosome.

DNA consists of two strands of nucleotides twisted around each other into a double helical structure. The nucleotide bases are arranged in a specific sequence in each strand. The strand has a backbone of sugar and phosphate from which the bases protrude.

Culture methods employed depend on the purpose for which they are intended. In the laboratory the indications for culture are mainly to

1.Isolate bacteria in pure culture.

2.Demonstrate their properties

3.Obtain sufficient growth for preparation of antigens and for other tests.

4.Type isolates by methods such as bacteriophages and bacteriocin susceptibility.

5.Determine sensitivity to antibiotics

6.Estimate viable counts

7.Maintain stock solution

Wafer: A thin crisp cake, candy, cracker or chips is known as wafer.

Waffle: A crisp cake of batter baked in a waffle iron is called waffle

Warner-Bartzler Shear: It is one of the oldest but commonly used devices used to measure the tenderness of meat. It is used to test the quality in the cooked meat (Plate 331).

Wastage: Wastage is a term that can not be precisely defined by even moral value / judgment and defined on the context / situation on which it is used.

Waste water: Water that has been used in a manufacturing process and goes waste is called waste water. Wastewater i.e. effluent generated from various points at the plant such as outlet of Westfeling separator and Treatment tanks etc. is polluted and it must be given a treatment before draining so that pollution control board norms are met. It is achieved through a specific treatment in a plant called Effluent Treatment Plant. ETP treats the waste/polluted water coming from the plant and make it able to dispose off in the river by neutralizing its toxicity.

Water: Water (H2 O) is a clear transparent, colourless, odourless and tasteless liquid; neutral in reaction; boils at 100oC, freezes at 0oC and has maximum density (1 g/cm3) at 4oC. It exists as snow, ponds, lake, rivers, seas, oceans etc., also occurs as rain and is there in the form of moisture in atmosphere. Pure water is bad conductor of heat and electricity. Water is an essential part of the body structure as a carrier of nutrients and regulator of a number of body functions. Fruit and vegetables contain > 80% water and sometime upto 95% water e.g. cucumber, lettuce, marrow, lettuce, melon. The starchy tubers and seeds, for example yam, cassava and cork, contain less water, but even > 50%. So water content must be optimum at the harvesting time. The human body comprises of about 65 % water, while that of fruits and vegetables 80-90% water.

29.1 Introduction
Cleaning is achieved using a cleaning agent designed to remove food, dirt, rust stains, minerals, or other residues. It is crucial to choose the appropriate cleaning agent, as not all are suitable for surfaces that come into contact with food. In a food-processing facility, sanitation involves ensuring that utensils and equipment that come into contact with products are kept clean and sterile. Additionally, clothing, air, packaging materials, and non-contact surfaces like floors, walls, and ceilings must be sanitized to prevent product contamination. Employees’ bodies, especially their hands, can also be sources of contamination, so maintaining high personal hygiene and cleanliness standards is essential. Moisture and heat can lead to microbiological contamination of both products and the environment. Moisture on product-contact surfaces and within products creates a medium where microorganisms can thrive and find nutrients, potentially affecting the safety and quality of milk and dairy products.
29.2 Types of Soil
Cleaning involves removing food residues and other types of soil from surfaces like utensils and equipment used in the dairy and food industries.
• In the dairy-processing sector, the equipment must be cleaned of various types of soil including: liquid milk films, air-dried films, heatprecipitated films, heat-hardened films, milk stone, and other foreign materials.
• Soluble soils will dissolve and be carried away in rinse or wash water. For insoluble soil components, chemical detergents may be needed to either dissolve them or soften them to facilitate easier removal.
• Cleaning or sanitizing the product contact surfaces of dairy equipment involves both washing and sterilizing. It’s important to avoid causing undue wear, erosion, or corrosion to these surfaces, as this can reduce their lifespan

INTRODUCTION

The agriculture in north eastern hill region of India is mainly rainfed in nature and shifting cultivation, known as jhuming, is the dominant farming system. The shifting cultivation is detrimental to both soil and vegetation as it is connected to heavy soil and nutrient losses when practised in steep slopes. The burning and slashing operations are responsible for reduced floral and faunal diversity in the region. It is a well known fact that climate is the main driving factor that governs the sustainability of other natural resources such as land, water and vegetation. So far the NE region gets abundant rainfall for survival of the crops at least during the kharif season. The rainfall starts early March and continues up to the late October. The jhum cultivators follow the rainfall trend and get their field ready for sowing of seeds by early March itself so that vegetative stage of crops gets plenty of rainwater for growth and development. Due to increased population pressure, the hills of NE region are over exploited and the jhum cycle has been reduced from 10-12 years to 4-5 years now-adays. Hence the soils do not get sufficient time to revitalize it and are subjected to more and more exploitation and get degraded permanently.

Obesity : A condition characterized by the excessive accumulation and storage of fat in the body. It is a physiological disorder having high body mass index (BMI), which can be expressed as a mathematical formula in which a person’s body weight in kilogram is divided by the square of his or her height in meters.

Aonla is said to be indigenous to tropical south-eastern Asia, particularly in central and southern India (Firminger, 1947). The genus comprises of about 350 species. It is also called Indian gooseberry, amla, nelli, myrobalan, amlaki, amali, ambala, amlika, sirikai, amalakamu in different regional languages in India. Aonla is one of the richest sources of natural ascorbic acid which is protected by high polyphenols content during storage and processing. Aonla is indigenous to central and southern India. It is found it Sri Lanka, Malaysia, China and Malacca. In India, it is widely cultivated in Uttar Pradesh, Tamil Nadu. Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan, Gujarat, Chhatisgarh and Jharkhand.

Cultivars/Varieties: Some of the well-known improved varieties are Banarasi, Chakaiya, Krishna (NA-5), Kanchan (NA-4), Hathi Jhul, Neelam (NA-7), Amrit (NA-6), Balwant, Anand-1, 2 & 3.

Uses

The fruit is widely used in ayurvedic preparation due to its pharmacological properties. The fruits are made into preserve (murabba), sauce, candy, dried chips, etc., Fruits are pickled and made into, jelly, toffee, etc., bark and leaves are used for tanning and wood is used for preparing hookah.

Citrus is one of the most important fruit crops of the world. The most important commercial citrus fruits in India is mandarin oranges followed by sweet oranges, lemons and acid limes. Citrus fruits are used for fresh fruit juices, processing into squashes, marmalades and its essential oils from peel are widely used in flavouring, perfumery and cosmetic industry. The citrus peel is one of the important sources for manufacture of pectin.

It is believed that most of the species under the genus citrus are native to tropical and subtropical regions of South-East Asia, particularly India, China and in the region between these two countries. The north-eastern region of India is considered as one of the natural homes for few species of citrus. The other major citrus producing countries of the world are Brazil, USA, India, China,Mexico, Spain, Egypt, Italy, Indonesia and Trukey.

Sweet Orange (Cirus sinensis Osbeck) or Mosambi

Sweet orange is one of the most widely favored citrus fruit of of the world. Its scientific name is Citurs sinensis Osbeck. The sweet oranges are generally round to oval in shape; tight skinned with solid central core. The skin is yellow to orange in colour, smooth and pulp is yellow to orange or reddish. The segments are tightly attached to one another. The commercially important varieties are Malta (Blood Red), Mosambi and Satgudi. Other exotic varieties like Valencia, Washington Navel of USA and Shamouti of Isreal.

Importance of Food Storage

Food storage is both a traditional domestic skill and is important industrially. Food is stored by almost every human society and by many animals. Storing of food has several main purposes:

•Storage of harvested and processed plant and animal food products for distribution to consumers

•Enabling a better balanced diet throughout the year

•Reducing kitchen waste by preserving unused or uneaten food for later use

•Preserving pantry food, such as spices or dry ingredients like rice and flour, for eventual use in cooking

•Preparedness for catastrophes, emergencies and periods of food scarcity or famine

•Religious reasons (Example: LDS Church leaders instruct church members to store food)

•Protection from animals or theft

Onion (Allium cepa L.) is one of the oldest and most widely cultivated vegetable crops, with a history of domestication extending over five thousand years. Valued for its culinary, medicinal, nutritional and cultural importance, it has travelled across continents through migration, trade and agricultural exchange. Its broad ecological adaptability has enabled cultivation in temperate, subtropical and tropical regions. The chapter examines probable centres of origin, historical evidence of cultivation, domestication and geographical dispersal. It also explains onion’s nutritional and therapeutic significance, global production status, genetic diversification and role in human civilization, providing a historical foundation for understanding modern onion improvement and cultivation.