eChapters

1. Introduction

Jackfruit (Artocarpus heterophyllus Lam. ) a member of the family Moraceae is the largest tree-borne fruit in the world. India is the second biggest producer of the fruit in the world and is considered as the motherland of jackfruit. The jackfruit is native to parts of South and Southeast Asia and is believed to have originated in the rainforests of Western Ghats of India and is cultivated throughout the low lands in South and Southeast Asia. Major jackfruit producing countries are Bangladesh, India, Myanmar, Nepal, Thailand, Vietnam, China, the Philippines, Indonesia, Malaysia and Sri Lanka. There are 100-500 seeds in a single fruit (Sidhu, 2012). It is composed of rind, edible bulbs of yellow-flesh and seeds. The ripe fruits are eaten or processed into snacks and canned products. Seeds make up around 10 to 15% of the total fruit weight (30-365/ fruit) and have high carbohydrate and protein contents (Ocloo et al., 2010). Mostly the seeds, rind and strands are discarded as waste. So, the seed, rind and strand flour can be an alternative intermediatory product, which can be stored and utilized, both for value addition and to blend with other grain flours without affecting the functional and sensory profile of the final product.

1. Introduction

Sundarbans is claimed to be one of the wonders of the world for its natural resources of halophytic mangrove forest (some 34 species of true mangroves are present), biodiversity and ecosystem that form an extraordinary environment of the globe. Available brackish water environment of Sundarbans provides favourable substratum for algal communities (Naskar and Naskar, 2010). Enteromorpha intestinalis specifically is one of the algal species that is very abundant in the Sundarban region. The production of total seaweeds in India in 2000 was approximately 600,000 tons (wet weight). India produces 110-132 tons of dry agar annually utilizing about 880-1100 tons of dry agarophytes. The seaweed industry in India is mainly a cottage industry and is based only on the natural stock of agar-yielding red seaweeds, such as Gelidiella acerosa and Gracilaria edulis, and algin yielding brown seaweeds species such as Sargassum and Tubineria (Kaladharan and Kaliaperumal, 1999).

Investigational studies indicate that marine algae contain significant amount of nutraceuticals, vitamins, proteins, carbohydrates, fiber and antioxidants. Composition indicates that there is a tremendous scope for food and pharmaceutical applications. These may be used for food fortification but after rigorous studies. Formulation, standarizaiton and characterization should be performed before human use. Studies for exploitation of the bioactive components of the species may open up new avenues. Hence there seems to be a full scope for the realization of outcomes of the research. Further the utilization of the developed processes at higher scales may reap in financial benefits and may prove beneficial to the local people, who are supplier of the raw materials. The present study is an attempt to utilize this India variety of macro-algae for fortification of bakery food products.

1. Introduction

Milk is considered to be an adequate source of valuable macro nutrients, fat, protein, lactose. Vitamins and micronutrients making it a wholesome food. It can serve as an excellent carrier product for extra nutrient and if enriched or fortified it can satisfy the nutritional needs of the population. Soybean is an excellent source of low cost protein and has been an important nutritional component and medical investigation have revealed the great potential of soy foods for lowering blood cholesterol levels and the incidence of heart disease and cancer. The dry soybean contains roughly 40 % protein, 20% oil and 35% soluble (sucrose , raffinose, stachyose, etc. ). Aqueous extract of soya is an ideal substitute of animal milk for people suffering from allergic, gastrointestinal and other diseases peculiar to elderly people liu et al. (2004). Soymilk obtained by aqueous extraction from whole soybeans is a well known food product that is growing in popularity in many areas of the world (Hauman,1984). Soy milk is low in fat, carbohydrate, calcium, phosphorus, and riboflavin, but high in iron, thiamin, and niacin in comparison with cows’ milk. Soy milk contains higher amount of protein than buffalo milk and is deficient in sulfur containing amino acids. Soya milk is used in various products like paneer, yoghurts , cheese, tea and coffee whiteners , shrikhand, rasogolla and various indigenous milk sweets, confectionary, etc (Kale et al., 2012, Chang et al., 2005) also reported that intake of fermented soymilk improves the ecosystem intestinal tract by increasing the amount of probiotics. During the last years, soy beverages consumption has gradually increased due to their significant concentration of health promoting compounds, such as iso flavones.

1. Introduction

Underutilized fruits and vegetables are commercially neglected but recognized as rich sources of nutrients and non-nutrient bioactive compounds (Ali et al., 2008). These crops are very popular among local communities in many parts of the world and well accepted in their traditional diets and therapeutic medicines (Animesh et al., 2010). Nowadays, these are gaining significance in research and development programs of many organizations. Meghalaya is endowed with rich and unique diversity of indigenous wild edible fruit species of which most of them are less known and underutilized (Haque et al., 2009). There are rich in functional bioactive components such as vitamins and minerals are the much talked dietary nutrient for women and children health. It is being supplied to body through tablets, vegetables, fruits and other food items (Islam et al., 2012).

1. Introduction

Ohmic heating is an emerging method of thermal processing which have the feature of HTST treatment (Halden et al., 1990) with lower energy inputs (Choi et al., 2011; Sastry et al., 2011). During ohmic heating (Fig. 1) the alternating current is passed through the food material, where food acts as a resistor to the flow of electric current and leads to the instant volumetric heat generation by following the Joules first law of heating (Pereira & Vicente 2010; Lima et al., 1999 and 2001; Wang, 2014). Ohmic heat treatment of food material has been found to reduce microbial load of the food material simultaneously with the inactivation of the inherent enzymes (Demirdoven & Baysal 2014; Yildiz & Baysal 2006; Jakob et al., 2010). Despite the problems of electrochemical degradation associated with it, ohmic heating has been successfully studied for its use in preheating, blanching, pasteurization and extraction (Leizerson, & Shimoni, 2005; Lima & Sastry, 1999; Lakkakula et al., 2004). A majority of studies that have explored the effect of ohmic treatment have focused on a number of commercial products from pulp (strawberry), or puree (pea) to juice (grape), etc. (Castro et al, 2004; Icier et al, 2008; Icier et al., 2006). However, the present chapter is confined to put some light on the studies conducted on ohmic heating of various liquid food material and its effects on various parameters of the food material.

1. Introduction

Biopolymers nowadays are grabbing a nice place in packaging industries replacing synthetic polymers. The most important advantage of biopolymer over synthetic polymers is that they are biodegradable and can be developed from agricultural or food processing wastes. Among the wide variety of materials currently used in food packaging, polymers have taken a major share because of their versatility and advantageous performance (Valdés et al., 2014). However, most polymers used for food packaging are not biodegradable or compostable and therefore represent an increasingly serious end-of-life disposal problem worldwide. Although food package stability during the shelf-life of the product is an advantage, it turns into a disadvantage when the packages enter the post-use phase.

1. Introduction

Kiwi fruit (KF) is very much acceptable for preservation by freeze-drying (FD) technique, since it has very much health benefits such as low calorific value, low glycemic index (GI), more vitamins (particularly vitamin C), maximum load of potassium, presence of variety of pigments, few important enzymes, low allergic response (AR) and finally it is rich in natural antioxidants, polyphenols. It is translucent, green pulp and many black seeds arranged nicely with covered by hairy and brown skin. The KF seeds are small sizes and black colored surround inner circularly through the whole pulp. It gives a nice crunch during consumption and provides a number of essential nutrients. Therefore, it will be remembered that seeds cannot be discarded during processing of KF unlike other fruit (jamun etc. ) seeds.

1. Introduction

Cassava (Manihot esculenta Crantz) is a tuberous root crops. It is known as “U mangra” in Manipuri. It is also known as mandioca or tapioca, yucca, mosioc. Cassava belongs to Euphorbiaceae family The cassava plant is of perennial woody shrub in nature. (CGIR 2011; FAO-2015, Zhu 2015). Like paddy and wheat as staple food crops, cassava is also staple food crops for many countries. It supports millions of population especially in South American and African countries. It is also known as food security crop because of its ability to withstand harsh environmental conditions when other food crops cannot sustain and destroy. It can grow in low fertility soil, marginal land with less agricultural maintenance. It resists to pest and diseases so cultivation is easy to carry out with less expenditure. Cassava is abundantly grown in Manipur mostly in hilly areas. To some extent, it is consumed as snacks item either by burnt in fire or charcoal or boiled form with little addition of salt. The fresh young leaves and roots after removing its cover is used as ingredients of “singju” a salad type traditional snack items of Manipur. Out of cassava sweet snack item locally called “manghra heingan” in Manipur is also prepared. For making this sweet item, cassava is boiled with sugarcane molasses until it is cooked and reach certain sugar consistency of molasses. This sweet item is similar with murabba available in Indian market.

1. Introduction

The growing prevalence of obesity and obesity associated disorders as well as its impact on public health has received increased attention in recent years. As a result, obesity is now considered one of the world’s leading public health problems. A study published in the noted medical journal Lancet says India is just behind US and China in this global hazard list of top 10 countries with the highest number of obese people. The study - titled ‘Global, regional, and national prevalence of overweight and obesity in children and adults during 1980-2013: A systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2013’ - used data collected by international bodies and organizations in various countries like India over three decades. China and India together accounted for 15 per cent of the world’s obese population, with 46 million and 30 million obese people, respectively. According to the study, the number of overweight and obese people globally increased from 857 million in 1980 to 2. 1 billion in 2013. This is one-third of the world’s population.

With lifestyle disorders forcing more and more people to reel under excess body weight, even relatively younger people are developing joint disorders and knee pain. Excessive weight is associated with a series of health problems, including blood pressure, diabetes, and cardiovascular ailments. Therefore there in an urgent need to envision effective anti-obesity strategies through effective interventions.

1. Introduction

With increase in consumer awareness and lifestyle the interest for health promoting natural food ingredients has expanded in recent years. However, globally it has become a great challenge to the manufacturers to ensure that such compounds should remain in their active form during processing and storage with an emphasis to its bioavailability profile. Oxidative stress is the major contributor to the pathogenesis of a number of chronic and degenerative diseases including atherosclerosis, Alzheimer’s and Parkinson’s disease, diabetes, DNA damage, carcinogenesis, cardiovascular and neuro degenerative diseases, allergies, premature ageing etc. (Gupta et al. , 2014; Svetli et al. , 2010). Endogenous antioxidant defense mechanisms are not always sufficient to fully scavenge the free radicals formed in the body during various processes. Therefore, dietary components having antioxidant properties, such as tea flavonoids, are very much necessary to supplement the activity of endogenous antioxidants. Tea is one of the most concentrated sources of flavonoids and phenolic acids which show antioxidant activity by sequestering metal ions and by scavenging reactive oxygen and nitrogen species (Frei & Higdon, 2003).

1. Introduction

Jackfruit is the largest edible tree borne fruit in the world (Baliga et al., 2011). According to Haq (2006) India is considered as the birth place of jackfruit. The major jackfruit producing states in India are Assam, Tripura, Bihar, Uttar Pradesh, the foothills of the Himalayas and South Indian States of Kerala, Tamil Nadu and Karnataka. Jackfruit is a fruit prized in some areas of the world and allowed to go waste in others. According to Sidhu (2012) the extent to which jackfruit is being wasted in India is not exactly documented however, the wastage is approximately 75%. On an average a fully developed fruit may weigh 10-25 kg. Seeds occupy around 10 to 15% of the total weight of the jackfruit (Bobbio et al., 1978). It is reported that jackfruit seeds contain high amount of protein, fiber and carbohydrate (Ocloo et al., 2010). The seeds are viable for not more than three or four days (Sidhu, 2012). According to Abedin et al. (2012) the industrial utilization of jackfruit pulp are varied but the seeds are discarded from those food industries. Moreover, mature fresh seeds cannot remain fresh for long as they tend to germinate easily. So, converting jackfruit seed into flour is an option in order to increase the shelf- life of the seed and can substitute various cereal based flours for developing food products. Dumpling is a type of food which is made out of small pieces of dough wrapped around a filling that may include vegetables, meat, or other ingredients mixed together.

1. Introduction

The term nanotechnology was first coined by Norio Taniguchi in 1974 to describe controlled thin film deposition (Taniguchi, 1974). Nanotechnology is now generally recognized to include materials with a size in at least one dimension in the 1-100 nm range, although this terminology is not strictly enforced (Rao, 2008). In food science, there are many types of naturally occurring particles that fall within this size range and the use of a strict definition is problematic due to the large distribution of sizes (Kruif, 1998). Many natural foods contain nanoscale components and their properties are determined by their structure. These have been eaten safely for generations. In fact, some of food’s most important raw materials (proteins, starches, and fats) undergo structural changes at the nanometre and micrometre scales during normal food processing(Morris and Parker 2008). Food proteins (for example, native beta-lactoglobulin, which is about 3. 6 nm in length) can undergo denaturation (via pressure, heat, pH, etc. ) 

1. Introduction

The Refractance Window drying system uses circulating hot water, usually at 90°C and at atmospheric pressure, so that it can carry the thermal energy to the material to be dehydrated. Thermal energy is transferred to the wet product from circulating hot water through a plastic interface which is transparent to the infrared radiation. The actual product temperature is kept below 70°C. The heated water is recycled and reused, which helps in improving the thermal efficiency of the system. The use of hot water as the heat transfer medium and at temperatures just below boiling is a design feature that is unique to this drying method. In RW drying, there are three modes of heat transfer, namely conduction, convection, and radiation. The process water is heated by steam within an insulated tank and then circulated in shallow troughs to transfer thermal energy to the plastic conveyor. As the plastic conveyor is very thin, it reaches the temperature of hot water flowing beneath it almost immediately. By conduction and radiation, the thermal energy from the hot water is transmitted through the plastic conveyor. The use of process water at temperatures just below boiling and a thin plastic conveyor with infrared transmission in the wavelength range that matches the absorption spectrum for water all work together to facilitate rapid drying.

1. Introduction

Rasogolla is a sweetened dairy product which is made from milk mainly from casein protein. Generally rasogolla is made by heating the raw milk around 80-850C ,then slowly cool the milk around 650C and acid coagulation of the milk is done. Then separate the channa (mainly casein) and whey, and drained the whey followed by the pressing of the channa to remove the excess water. Then channa is thoroughly kneaded and are rolled to balls and cooked in sugar syrup and get the rasogulla. Total value of 1000 billion for Indian dairy output in 2001, the output of traditional dairy products is estimated at over 400 billion. The share of the organized sector in the indigenous products is at present only 50 billion only (Patil, 2005).

1. Introduction

Cherry peppers (Capsicum frutensis var. cerasiforme) which is locally known as dallae khorsani, is one of the important cash crops of Sikkim and Darjeeling hills. They are small, round shaped, fleshy and heavily seeded. They are green in color in early stage of fruiting and turn red when fully matured. It is an excellent source of vitamin A and C, which are important antioxidants (Howard et al., 1994). Cherry peppers are an ideal size for pickling or brining. Its hotness ranges from moderately mild to very high.

Due to its high moisture content (about 85% w. b. ), shelf life of cherry pepper is limited to 7 - 10 days. This makes it rare and costly during the off season. Hence, preservation of cherry peppers is of considerable importance both to the farmers as well as to the consumers. Drying is one of the oldest methods for preservation of cherry peppers to make it available throughout the year. To increase shelf life of chilies, drying up to 10 % moisture content (dry basis) is required which is accepted in export market.

For drying chillies, sun and hot air drying are the most common drying method used. However, due to the prolonged drying time of 16-48 h, the quality of the dried chillies is reduced (Kim et al., 2002). Many researchers paid more attention to innovative techniques such as short and medium-wave infrared radiation drying (SMIR) which not only maintain product quality, but also increase the drying rate. Moreover, infrared drying could save up 50% energy compared to convective drying (Nowak & Lewicki, 2004). The ability of infrared radiation to penetrate and heat the inner layers results in higher rate of heat and mass transfer (Ginzburg, 1969).

1. Introduction

Osmotic dehydration is a useful treatment of dehydration compared to the other dehydration processes, as other dehydration processes bring adverse and irreversible changes in physical and nutritional status of food material. Recently in many studies it was found out that since plant membranes are semi-permeable in nature, not only moisture but transfer of solute from osmotic solution to the food material also takes place. Another kind of transfer which was also noticed is the leaching of micronutrients from the cells of food to the osmotic solution, but the amount being very low, this transfer can be neglected. (Mayor et al., 2006). The mass transfer kinetics was studied for different food materials (Hawkes and Flink, 1978). Effect of different variables such as pressure and temperature were also studied (Rastogi and Niranjan, 1998). The effective diffusivities for both water loss and solute gain can be calculated by using various methods which gives the rate of diffusion of solute and moisture for the food material. The finding of solute gain and leaching of micronutrients pointed the requirement of maintaining the osmotic dehydration process, which could be done by maintaining the process variables of osmotic dehydration. Impact of various process variables on osmotic dehydration and their best levels at which maximum water loss and minimum solute gain could be obtained had to be calculated out. For this purpose, optimization of process variables through response surface methodology (RSM) could be best utilized (Uddin et al. , 2004). RSM is a statistical tool which gives the random combinations of input variables to give the best output result as required. Various works have been done on optimization of process conditions of osmotic dehydration taking different samples of foods. In this study, bamboo shoot species (Bambusa balcooa) was taken as sample for osmotic dehydration to optimize the process variables for osmotic dehydration of bamboo shoots using salt as osmotic agent followed by calculation of effective diffusivity of water and solute during osmotic dehydration of bamboo shoot.

1. Introduction

Citrus is a common term and genus (Citrus) of flowering plants in the Rue family, Rutaceae. Citrus fruits are non-climacteric and respiration slowly declines and the production and release of ethylene is gradual. India ranks sixth in the production of citrus fruits in the world. Citrus wastes typically are about 45- 50% of the weight of citrus original and the percentage of waste to 30-50% for vegetables and fruits in general. Natural colour plays a significant role in determining the degree of consumer acceptance of the product. In addition, carotenoids (vitamin A precursor) have high nutritional values which are important for human nutrition.Francis and Isaksen (1988) stated that carotenoids play a very important role for extraction as for protection of health against cancer, cardiovascular and eye disease and as anti-oxidant. Carotenoids play important roles in human nutrition through their provitamin A activity, but also by acting as antioxidants, for prevention of age-related macular degeneration or skin protection against UV radiation. The antioxidant capacity of carotenoids was proved for pure compounds as well as for plant extracts and food. The main objective of this research work is extraction, determination and identification of natural colorants from different citrus wastes (citrus peel). Also to study the effects of pH and oxygen on the stability of extracted pigments and determination of the specific carriers for the extracted pigments using solid matrices (starch, dextrin, arabic gum and flour).

1. Introduction

The emergence of food borne illness due to contaminated food is one of the most frequently occurring event and challenge for the food processing industry. This has resulted into economy as well as energy requirement to counter the food borne pathogens. Some of the important pathogenic microorganisms of concern are E. coli, Listeria monocytogenes, salmonella, etc. To address the food safety and quality issues, several non-thermal food processing technologies have been developed in the last decades, with an aim of achieving food safety without significantly affecting the quality of the food product. Cold plasma in one of the non-thermal processing technology, which has shown promising results as evidenced by recent scientific investigations.

The plasma is known as fourth state of matter after solid, liquid and gas state. Plasma contains diversity of energetic species including ions, electrons, atoms, excited molecules and charged particles. In a plasma, a significant number of electrons have such a high energy that no nucleus can hold them. When a gas is subjected to heat or an electric field, some of the atoms become ions and the gas is said to be ionized. An ionized gas in its normal condition, can conduct electric current to a limited extent. If the heat or electric current becomes extreme, many of the atoms become ions. The resulting super ionized gas, which can conduct a large and sustained electric charge. Plasmas are used in several materials processing industries like textiles, electronics, paper and glass industries etc.

    1.    Rice is a
        a)    Edible fruit    b)    Edible Vegetable
        c)    Edible flower    d)    All
    2.    Major components in cereal seeds are 
        a)    Endosperm    b)    Germ or embryo
        c)    a & b    d)    None
    3.    Bran is composed of 
        a)    Pericarp    b)    Testa
        c)    aleuron layer    d)    All
    4.    Oats contains ______________ percent of hull
        a)    50    b)    40
        c)    30    d)    20

Introduction

Canning is the general term applied to the process of packaging a food in a container and subjecting it to a thermal process for the purpose of extending its useful life. An optimal thermal process will destroy pathogenic (disease-causing) Bacteria, kill or control spoilage organism present and have mineral impact on the nutritional and physical quality of the food. Although we thing of canning in term of steel or possible aluminium cans, the principle apply equally well to a variety of food containers such as glass jar, plastic and foil laminated pouches, semi rigid plastic tray or bowls, as well as metal cans of any one of several shapes, including cylindrical, oval, oblong or rectangular. The concept of aseptic packaging (sterilizing the food and the container prior to filling and sealing) also follows the same principles.

Abstract

Being a great nutrient rich fruit, Dragon fruit has fetched a worldwide attention already and started to emerge as an important cash crop in global market. But the fine tuning between the scheduling of supply and market demand is greatly influenced by postharvest management and storage techniques of the fruit as the fruit has a short storage life. In this review, effect of diversified storage and packaging techniques on the different post harvest quality of fruits viz. fruit firmness, skin colour, its nutritional quality and susceptibility to disease pest during storage is investigated. And it was seen that various alternative and innovative modern techniques such as introduction of  plastic film, plastic crate packaging, modified atmospheric storage, different chemical application and application of edible chitosan coating are proven as effective to extent the durability of storage that widen the room for transport and marketing. Finally it can be said that the advantage of growth in dragon fruit consumption and marketing can be more harnessed through understanding the missing links between harvest and post-harvest handlings and integrating the traditional and modern postharvest approaches.

Abstract

The irradiation process involves exposing the food, either prepackaged or in bulk, to a predetermined level of ionization radiation. In this process, it is important to know sources of ionization radiation, how energy is quantified, and its scope with advantages and limitations.The traditional methods like preservation, such as drying, smoking and salting have been supplemented with pasteurisation (by heat), canning (commercial sterilisation by heat), refrigeration, freezing and chemical preservatives. ‘Food irradiation’ is another technology that can be added to the list. By realizing its importance present chapter highlighted with some basic aspects as well as its applications and other related aspects of food irradiation. Food irradiation involves basic principles like; Pasteurization (Pathogen Reduction) 2. Sterilization 3. Sanitation 4. Disinfestation. As concern to dosage can be applied as  low, medium and high based on type of radiation, type of food, type of packaging material and time of application. It has broader range of application in preservation with this also has few limitations which have become bottlenecks in this technology. Though technology is employing much in developed countries rather than developing once. Prospectus should be given in those countries also.

Introduction

Packaging is the science, art and technology of enclosing or protecting products for distribution, storage, sale, and use. Packaging also refers to the process of design, evaluation, and production of packages. Packaging may be defined as the art and science which involves preparing the articles for transport, storage display and use. India is a land of large varieties of fruits and vegetables due to its vast soil and climatic diversity. With 38 and 71 million tons of production of fruits and vegetables, India is the second largest producer of fruits and vegetables next to Brazil and China respectively. Apart from the huge value addition and employment involved in these activities, packaging has served the Indian economy by helping preservation of the quality and lengthening the shelf life of innumerable products-ranging from milk and biscuits, to drugs and medicines, processed and semi-processed foods, fruits and vegetables, edible oils, electronic goods etc., besides domestic appliances and industrial machinery and other hardware needing transportation (FAO, 1985).

Introduction

Fresh fruits and vegetables are known for their nutritional and relishing nature. But, their fast perishability and season wise availability make them unavailable for a longer time. To enjoy and get benefited from their unique taste and nutritional value they are further preserved or converted into some value-added products such as jam, jelly, candies, juices, minimally processed fresh-cut fruits and vegetables, pickles etc. There are techniques which are developed to preserve them while in fresh and also when they are made into value-added products. Some require only one technique and other requires more than one in combination so that the product can be preserved for a longer period and available to maximum population even after their period of production/availability is completed.

Ornamental Industry

Floriculture as a multi-billion dollar industry has been undergoing unique revolution in terms of production and marketing of high value ornamentals such as cut flowers, loose flowers, potted and foliage plants there by emerged as fully export oriented activity. Owing to the steady increase in demand of flowers, floriculture has become one of the important commercial businesses in horticulture. Presently, floriculture industry in India has been growing with compound annual growth rate of 25 percent over the past decade (Muthukumaran, 2009). It has been found that commercial floriculture has higher potential per unit area than most of the field crops and therefore, it is a lucrative business. Indian floriculture industry has been shifting from traditional flowers to cut flowers for export purposes.Maharashtra, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Haryana, Tamilnadu, Rajasthan, West Bengal have emerged as major floriculture production areas. The export of floricultural products from India has been on an increase in the past five years due to high demand for floriculture products in importing countries. The estimated total area under floriculture in India is 2,82,000 ha. Tamil Nadu stands first followed by Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh, West Bengal, Maharashtra, Rajasthan, Delhi and Haryana. Approximately 16,57,000 metric tonnes of loose flowers and over 5,20,000 metric tonnes cut flowers are produced in India during 2015-16. Total export of floriculture products is 22,518 MT with value of 479 crores (APEDA, 2015). Major importers of ornamental products from India are USA, Germany, UK, Netherland, and UAE.

Introduction

Horticulture plays a significant role in Indian Agriculture. It contributes 30% GDP from 11.73 % of its arable land area. India is the second largest producer of both fruits and vegetables in the world (52.85 Mt and 108.20 Mt respectively). Being rich source of carbohydrates, minerals, vitamins and dietary fibres these constitute an important part of our daily diet. The dietary fibres have several direct and indirect advantages. Not only this, fruits and vegetables provide a variety in taste, interest and aesthetic appeal. Their significance in human life is being recognised increasingly in societies with the objective of minimizing the occurrence of the diseases related with an affluent life style.

Key facts
        
Agriculture and livestock
    
·    The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) defines adaptation as ‘adjustment in natural or human systems in response to actual or expected climatic stimuli or their effects, which moderates harm or exploits beneficial opportunities’. The adaptation can be considered as tackling the effects of climate change, whereas mitigation is tackling the cause of climate change such as reducing the sources or enhancing the sinks of greenhouse gases. There could be different types of adaptation such as autonomous (spontaneous) and planned adaptation (policy decision).
    
·    Autonomous adaptation includes altering varieties and/or species those are more appropriate to the altered thermal regime or with increased resistance to heat shock and drought; altering the timing or location of cropping activities; altering fertilizer rates to maintain grain or fruit quality consistent with the climate and altering amounts and timing of irrigation and other water management practices; diversifying income by integrating other farming activities such as livestock raising, integrated agriculture and aquaculture/fish farming; development and use of varieties and species resistant to pests and diseases, wider use of technologies to ‘harvest’ water, conserve soil moisture (e.g. crop residue retention) and to use water more effectively in areas where rainfall is projected to decrease and using seasonal climate forecasting to reduce production risk.

Key facts
    
·    The Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) defines food security as a ’situation that exists when all people, at all times, have physical, social and economic access to sufficient, safe and nutritious food that meets their dietary needs and food preferences for an active and healthy life’. There are four dimensions of food security: Food Availability (availability of sufficient food for all people at all times, i.e. production); Food Accessibility (physical and economic access to food at all times, i.e. affordability), Food Utilization (access to food that is nutritious, safe and produced in environmentally sustainable ways, i.e. nutrients in food and food safety); and Food Stability (reliability of adequate food supply).
    
·    Agriculture is important for food security since it provides food for the people and is the primary source of livelihood for 36% of the world’s total workforce. In the heavily populated countries such as Asia and the Pacific, about 40% to 50%, and in sub-Saharan Africa, about two-thirds of the working population make their living from agriculture.
    
·    Agriculture, livestock and fisheries production are all sensitive to climate and are affected by its changes. Climate change will increase hunger and malnutrition, emergence of new pests and diseases and will threaten fishing and aquaculture industries.

Key Facts
        
Agricultural food
    
·    There are multiple pathways through which climate-related factors may impact food contamination and food safety, food quality, foodborne diseases including changes in temperature and precipitation patterns, increased frequency and intensity of extreme weather events, ocean warming and acidification and changes in the transport pathways of complex contaminants.
    
·    All or most foodborne pathogens and their associated diseases are linked to changing environmental conditions, the notable of which are campylobacteriosis, salmonellosis and vibriosis.
    
·    An estimated 30% of reported cases of salmonellosis across much of continental Europe have been attributed to warm temperatures, especially when they exceed a threshold of 6°C above average. Likewise both in Australia and Canada a positive correlation was found between increasing temperature and incidence of salmonellosis.
    
·    Zoonosis such as Rift Valley Fever (RVF), West Nile Fever, tick-borne diseases and non-zoonotic animal diseases such as Blue tongue, African horse sickness, African swine fever are examples of animal diseases whose distribution is expected to be strongly influenced by climate change and variability.
    
·    Mycotoxin is a toxic secondary metabolite produced by filamentous fungi, commonly known as moulds and may contaminate agricultural commodities (food) by growing on them both before and after harvest, whenever the humidity and temperature are permissive. The most prominent mycotoxins are aflatoxins, deoxynivalenol, zearalenone, ochratoxin-A, fumonisin, and patulin.
    
·    The humans ingestion of mycotoxins occur through consumption of the mycotoxin contaminated plant-based foods, such as grains, maize, barley, rice, coffee, nuts and their residues, and metabolites in animal-derived foods, for example aflatoxin M1 (AFM1) in milk and meat products. In addition, mycotoxins may occur in beer and wine.

Key facts

Agriculture
    
·    Agriculture production (plant growth) is highly dependent on climate since crop growth is influenced by solar radiation, temperature and precipitation and sensitive to climate variability and weather extremes (droughts, floods, severe storms).
    
·    Climate change is projected to have an effect on local agriculture and the net result could be harmful (e.g. frequent droughts, salinization of agriculture land due to sea level rise) or beneficial, (e.g. enhance CO₂ and higher yield, longer growing season, increased precipitation) or mixed.
    
·    Climate change or a doubling of GHGs (2 x CO₂) is projected to cause both gains and losses of agriculture land.
    
·    Each crop has a specific temperature range at which vegetative and reproductive growth will proceed at the optimal rate and exposures to extreme temperatures during these phases can impact growth and yield. Higher temperatures during the reproductive stage of development can affect pollen viability, fertilization and grain or fruit formation. 
    
·    Warming generally allow plants to grow faster that are below their optimum temperature, however for cereal crops faster growth means there is less time for the grain itself to grow and mature, reducing yields. 
    
·    Night-time temperatures are rising faster than daytime temperatures and are expected to continue rise in the future. According to International Rice Research Institute (IRRI), Philippines, the rise of night time temperature decreases rice yield by 10% for each 1°C increase in growing-season night time temperature in the dry season.

Key Facts
    
·    The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) defines ‘climate change’ as a ‘Change of climate which is attributed directly or indirectly to human activity that alters the composition of the global atmosphere and which is in addition to natural climate variability observed over the comparable time periods’.
    
·    The main green house gases (GHGs) that have caused the global climate change or global warming are carbon dioxide (CO₂), methane (CH₄) and nitrous oxide (N₂O).
    
·    CO₂ is the principal anthropogenic GHG that affects the earth’s radiative balance. It is the reference gas against which other GHGs are measured and therefore has a Global Warming Potential (GWP) of 1. CH₄ and N₂O have a GWP of 21 and 310 respectively.
    
·    CO₂ is responsible for most of the enhanced green house effect of more than 50%, CH₄ for about 10-15% and N₂O for about 8%.
    
·    The global atmospheric concentrations of CO₂, CH₄ and N₂O have increased since 1750. While CO₂ increased from a pre-industrial value of 280 ppm to 379 ppm in 2005, CH₄ increased from 715 ppb to 1774 ppb and N₂O increased from 270 ppb to 319 ppb during the same period.

16.1    Banana Alcohol
    
16.2    Banana Pseudostem Fibre and Fibre Reinforced Products
    
16.3    Banana Pseudostem Juice
    
16.4    Banana Starch
    
16.5    Banana Waste for Mushroom Production
    
16.6    Paper and Pulp from Banana Waste
    
16.7    Vermicompost and Vermiwash from Banana Waste
    
16.8    Animal Feed from Banana Waste
    
16.9    Banana Leaf

15.1    Banana Chips/Crisps
    
15.2    Banana Puree/Pulp
    
15.3    Banana Flour
    
15.4    Banana Powder
    
15.5    Banana Flakes
    
15.6    Banana Figs or Dehydrated Banana
    
15.7    Banana Jam
    
15.8    Ready-To-Serve (Rts) Beverage
    
15.9    Banana Beer and Wine
    
15.10    Banana Vinegar
    
15.11    Banana Catsup
    
15.12    Banana Inflorescence Relish
    
15.13    Candied Banana
    
15.14    Other Banana Based Products

By definition, minimal processing would encompass any procedure, short of traditional complete preservation procedures (heat sterilization etc.) that adds value to the fruit or vegetables (Floros, 1993). Other terms used to refer minimally processed products are lightly processed, partially processed, fresh processed, fresh cut and prepared. Minimally processed fruits and vegetables are products those have the attributes of ‘fresh-like’ quality. A number of minimally processed products of fruits and vegetables are now being produced like peeled and sliced potatoes, shredded lettuce and cabbage, washed and trimmed spinach, chilled peach, mango, banana, melon and other fruit slices, vegetable snacks such as carrot and celery stick  and cauliflower and broccoli florets, packaged mixed salads, cleaned and diced onion, peeled and cored pineapple, fresh sauces, peeled citrus fruits and microwaveable fresh vegetable trays. Minimal processing of fruits and vegetables has two purposes. First, it is important to keep the product fresh but convenient without losing its nutritional quality. Second, the product should have a shelf life sufficient enough to facilitate distribution within the region of consumption. The microbiological, sensory and nutritional shelf life of minimally processed fruits and vegetables should be at least 4-7 days but preferably even longer (Ahvenainen, 2000).

13.1    Biochemical Changes During Banana Ripening
    
13.2    Commercial Ripening

12.1    Shelf Life
    
12.2    Pre-Treatments Vs. Shelf Life/Storage (Hot Water, Fungicides, Coatings and other Chemicals)
    
12.3    Surface Coatings
    
12.4    1-MCP Gas Exposure
    
12.5    Use of Botanicals
    
12.6    Other Chemicals/Methods
    
12.7    Evaporative Cool Storage
    
12.8    Modified Atmosphere Storage (MAS)
    
12.9    Controlled Atmosphere Storage (CAS)
    
12.10    Vacuum Packaging
    
12.11    Hypobaric Storage
    
12.12    Irradiation
    
12.13    Chilling Injury (CI)

11.1    Maturity Indices
    
11.2    Harvesting and Field Handling
    
11.3    Packhouse Operations
    
11.4    Packaging
    
11.5    Precooling

10.1    Respiration
    
10.2    Effect of Ethylene on Ripening
    
10.3    Transpiration Loss
    
10.4    Postharvest Biochemistry of Banana
    
10.5    Postharvest Pathology of Banana

9.1    Temperature
    
9.2    Relative Humidity
    
9.3    Physical Damage
    
9.4    Microbial Load
    
9.5    Packaging
    
9.6    Transportation

8.1    Climatic Conditions
    
8.2    Water
    
8.3    Spacing
    
8.4    Crop Nutrition
    
8.5    Pests and Diseases
    
8.6    Bunch Covering
    
8.7    Maturity and Maturity Indices
    
8.8    Maturity vs Shelf life and Quality
    
8.9    Pre-Harvest Sprays
    
8.10    Harvesting

7.1    Pre-Harvest Factors Responsible for Post Harvest Losses
    
7.2    Harvesting Method
    
7.3    Post-Harvest Causes Responsible for Losses

6.1    Phytochemicals
    
6.2    Health Benefits  and Therapeutic Properties of Banana
    
6.3    Validation of Health and Therapeutic Claims

Most banana producers in Africa, Latin America and Asia are small-scale farmers who grow bananas either for home consumption or local markets. Because bananas and plantains produce fruit year-round, they provide an extremely valuable food source during the hunger season (when the food from one annual/semi-annual harvest has been consumed, and the next is still to come). Bananas and plantains are therefore critical to global food security. However, the export trade of banana depends mainly on commercial plantations in Latin America, East Asia and Africa. These plantations are owned by multinational corporations.

4.1    Importance of Banana in International Trade
    
4.2    Major Exporting Countries
    
4.3    Major Importing Countries
    
4.4    World Market Structure for Fresh Bananas
    
4.5    Domestic Trade
    
4.6    Banana Trade Wars : A Glimpse
    
4.7    Fair Trade Bananas

Edible bananas are classified into several main groups and subgroups. In the first place is the diploid M. acuminata group which originated in Malaya, Indonesia, the Philippines, Southern India, East Africa, Burma, Thailand, the West Indies, Colombia and Brazil. This group is characterized by dark-brown sheaths of pseudostem,  and the leaves are nearly free from wax. The bunches are small and the fruits small, thin-skinned and sweet. Cultivars of this group are more important in New Guinea than any where else. Lady Finger which was popular in Queensland and New South Wales belonged to this group.

In second place, there was a group represented by the prominent and widely cultivated ‘Gros Michel’ originally from Burma, Thailand, Malaya, Indonesia and Ceylon. It was introduced into Martinique early in the 19th Century by a French naval officer and, a few years later, was taken to Jamaica; from there it was carried to Fiji, Nicaragua, Hawaii and Australia, in that sequence. It is a large, tall plant bearing long bunches of large, yellow fruits, and it was formerly the leading commercial cultivar in Central Africa, Latin America and the Caribbean, but has been phased out because of its great susceptibility to Panama disease. It has given rise to several named sports or mutants (Mortan, 1987). 

2.1    Origin
    
2.2    Production
    
2.3    Distribution

2.4    World Scenario

Bananas and plantains constitute the fourth most important global food commodity (after rice, wheat and maize). They are cultivated in over 120 countries in the tropical and subtropical regions of the world in an area of  approximately 100 million hectares, where they constitute a major staple food crop for millions of people, as well as providing a valued source of income through local and international trade.
 
Banana is one of the oldest fruit crops of India, finding its reference even in epics like Ramayana. India is  believed to be one of centres of  origin, besides southeast Asian countries like Burma, Thailand, Malaysia and Indonesia. It is a crop having multifarious uses as every part of the plant is utilized and hence aptly  called as ‘Kalpatharu’ the plant of virtues. It is important internationally from the point of view of  trade as well as livelihood security.

1.    Introduction
    
2.    The Scenario in India
    
3.    The Concept of Hygiene in Indian Food Industry
    
4.    Food Safety- The Reality
    4.1      Food import inspection and certification
    4.2     Laboratories for export certification
    4.3      Food export inspection & certification
    
5.    What is HACCP? & What is in Practice?
    
6.    Where We Stand?

7.    Success of Application of Food Safety Management System
    7.1.    Pre-requisites for HACCP
    
8.    Logical Steps of HACCP
    8.1      Assemble HACCP team
    8.2     Describe product
    8.3     Identify intended use
    8.4     Construct flow diagram
    8.5     On site confirmation of flow diagram
    8.6     Principles of HACCP
    
9.    Conclusion
    
References
    
Further References

Index
    
About the Editors

1    Biological Hazards
    1.1    Bacterial hazards
    
2.     Fungal Hazards
    
3.    Viral Hazards
    3.1     Hepatitis A virus
    3.2       Norwalk virus
    
4.    Parasitic Hazards
    4.1     Parasitic worms
    4.2    Protozoan parasites
    
5.    Aquatic Biotoxins
    5.1    Paralytic shellfish poisoning (PSP)
    5.2    Diarrheic shellfish poisoning (DSP)
    5.3    Amnesic shellfish poisoning (ASP)
    5.4    Ciguatera fish poisoning (CFP)
    5.5     Puffer fish (Tetrodotoxic) poisoning (PFP)
    
6.    Pathogen Survival Through Cooking
    
References

1.    Introduction
    
2.    Bacteria of Public Health Significance in Fish Handling
    
3.    Sanitary and Hygienic Precautions to be Followed in Fish Handling
    3.1    Requirements for the fishing vessels
    
4.    Requirements for the Landing Sites/Auction Centres
    
5.    Requirements for the Processing Centres
    5.1     Use only potable water or clean sea water for washing fish
    5.2     Never put fish on sand or any unclean surface
    5.3     Lighting and ventilation
    5.4     Water supply
    5.5     Ice
    5.6     Utensils for fish handling
    5.7     Washing of utensils and fish contact surfaces
    5.8     Workers’ hygiene and health
    5.9     Rodent control measures
    5.10     Fly control measures
    5.11     Waste disposal
    5.12     Storage of toxic substances
    5.13     Toilet facilities
    
Acknowledgement
    
References