eChapters

1. Introduction

Product development is a basic activity in the food industry. Each company has a product mix, often including hundreds of products, which are constantly evolving - old products dying, products reaching maturity, products contributing to rapid growth and new products being introduced.

In the food industry, just as any other industry, product and process development is considered a vital part – indeed the lifeblood – of smart business strategy. Failure to develop new and improved products relegates firms to competing solely on price which favours the players with access to the lowest cost inputs (land, labour etc). Product and process development (commonly referred to as product development) is systematic, commercially oriented research to develop products and processes satisfying a known or suspected consumer need. Product development is a method of industrial research in its own right. There are essentially four basic stages in the model product development process.

Nutraceutical is a broad term which represents any substance extracted from food sources with additional health benefits alongside the good nutritional value already present in them. The nutraceutical term was originated by Stephen De Felice in 1989.

1. Introduction

Fruits and vegetables in fresh form in general contain very high water content, with the fast rate of metabolic activity, including respiration rate, which may vary with the fruit type. Accordingly, the storage life at room temperature is considerably less, to expect acceptable quality. A range of transformational changes occur in various features of the fruits and vegetables, such as color, flavor, texture, structure, sweetness, sourness, pungency, astringency and so on. Phenolic browning of mushrooms, intensive softening of papaya, coloration and softening of ripe banana, softening of pear and jackfruit , flavor transformations of mango, banana and jackfruit after ripening, their color and texture transformations, are classic examples of post-harvest changes in fresh commodities, over a course of storage period at room temperature. These physical and sensorial perceptions of fresh commodities over a length of storage period are based on the range and multitude of operations of physical, chemical and bio-chemical reactions occurring in various constituents of the fresh fruit or vegetable such as moisture, pigments, vitamins, pectin, cellulose, hemicelluloses, phenolics, lignin, sugars, flavor compounds, amino acids, fatty acids and so on. In order to increase the storage stability, the fresh fruits and vegetables are processed and converted into various products such as juice, RTS beverages, jam, jelly, marmalade, fruit spread, dehydrated, spray dried powder, frozen stored, fruit cereal flakes, canned, candied, fruit bar and so on. Based on the nature of processing, the original form, shape, size, texture and structure are transformed, however with due maintenance in storage acceptability. A number of external factors are applied to achieve this product range such as heat, air velocity, pressure, radiation, chilling, freezing, vacuum impregnation etc. The ultimate quality of the final product is essentially an interaction between and amongst the various chemical constituents so characteristic of each fruit or vegetable under study, and a sum total of positive and negative reactions related to sensorial acceptability of the product. This quality is again a function of the storage period and the conditions of storage. Consumers in modern days are more health conscious to choose between consumption of fresh or processed fruits and vegetables. For trade over distance and time and particularly for geographic regions not producing a particular fruit or vegetable, it is of utmost importance to process the fresh produce. Enzymatic transformations in color, texture and flavor deserve utmost attention to ensure acceptable quality of the processed product, in particular over the course of storage period or until consumed after transportation and marketing. Microbiological quality of the product in final form is a most vital factor of consumers' health and this is dependent on water activity, sugars and protein / amino acid contents. In this regard, additives and preservatives come into picture. Strict regulations are imposed on their use, type and concentration over a storage period, for healthy consumption. Accordingly, this chapter would deal with several examples of processing conditions influencing the quality of the product, that emanates. Processing involving chemical, bio-chemical, engineering, bio-technological and microbiological methods to achieve a product are vivid, varied and different to different species / variety of fruits or vegetables to target different products.

Definition
Production and operations management is the process of conversion of inputs into outputs, using physical resources, so as to provide the desired utility/utilities —of form, place, possession or state or a combination thereof—to the customer while meeting the other organizational objectives of effectiveness, efficiency and adaptability. It distinguishes itself from the other functions such as personnel, marketing etc. by its primary concern for ‘conversion by using physical resources’. Figure 1.1 describes a generalized concept of production system. It takes resource inputs and processes them to produce useful outputs in the form of goods or services.

Centuries before Greece and Rome were discovered, sailing ships carried Indian spices, perfumes and textiles to Mesopotamia, Arabia and Egypt. It was the lure of these that brought many seafarers to the shores of India. Emperors, kings, senators and the aristocracy transformed spices into the mostly highly prized commodities of ancient trade routes The story of Indian Spices is more than 7000 years old. By the 1400s, when navigational equipment had improved to the point that long-haul sailing became possible, European rulers set out to change the balance of world trade by funding spice-hunting missions of their own. Christopher Columbus who, in searching for a quick route to India, reached the Americas. Vasco de Gama was the first to surround Africa, and with a crew led by Ferdinand Magellan, fully circumnavigated the globe.

India is known as the food basket of the world. It is the second largest producer of fruit till now after China, but its contribution to the Global market of fruit processing is just 1per cent. This is due to the fact that there is deficiency of skilled manpower, poor cold storage facilities, inefficient post-harvest management and minimal technological interventions.
Deficiency of the skilled manpower: In-spite of market size of US dollar 181 billion, expenditure on food and food products being 21per cent of India’s GDP and more than 31per cent share of wallet by consumers, there is resultant apprehension about the emergency emerging skill shortages due to mismatch between the demand for specific skills and available supply. Shortage of skilled, Semi- skilled and unskilled workers has emerged as a critical factor impacting the competitiveness of Indian food industry. Efficient man-power is one such critical element to improve to foster the growth. As the food industry advances and adopts various levels of automation the demand of skilled manpower will increase phenomenally. Hence if, the Indian food industry must achieve projected growth target set and become globally competitive, the need to develop and train the human resource efficiently would be essential.

1. INTRODUCTION

Colour affects every moments of our lives, strongly influencing the cloths we wear, the furnishing in our house and garden, and the appeal of foods. Not only this, colour aids the recognition of food and also has psychological appeal on the enjoyment of food. It is also one of the first characteristic perceived by our senses and help in determining acceptability, judging the quality and basic aesthetic value of food. Addition of colour to the food ensures the uniformity and intensifies the naturally occurring pigments in our food. To achieve this, historically natural or bio-colours have been used extensively till the end of 19^th century, when synthetic colours called ‘coal tar dyes’ were developed that acquired a widespread acceptability. But unfortunately, these are not totally safe for human consumption; for example high levels of erythrosine intake causes thyroid tumors, while Ponceau 4R, tartrazine and sunset yellow were found to be allergic. Many dyes used as colourant have been proved to be carcinogenic. The consumer wants to see the food looking natural as the synthetic colours have been proved to be carcinogenic to humans. Thus, increasing consumer awareness for natural products with almost no chemical additive and certified dyes (which was earlier considered safe) has necessitated the need to exploit food colourants of natural origin. Natural colours are generally extracted from materials of biological origin like fruits, vegetables, seeds, roots and microorganisms, and are often called as ‘Biocolours’. Microorganisms like Rhodotorula, Sarcina, Chromobacter have been proved to be a good source of biocolour.Colour has also been successfully produced from microorganisms using apple pomace as a base for the growth medium of biocolour producing microorganisms.

Objective: Production of Chocolate.
The major ingredient of chocolate is cocoa mass, which is mixed with sugar, and in case of milk chocolate, also with milk powder. The conching process then follows, which is important for the development of full chocolate flavour. Melted cocoa butter is added, the chocolate mass becomes liquid and is cooled, tempered and poured into moulds to form chocolate products.
Mixing of ingredients
Sugar, cocoa mass and milk powder are intensively mixed forming a dry powder. This powder is pre-ground in various types of mills and then finely ground in a 5-roll refiner. The size of particles in chocolate is between 15- 70 mm (average 25 mm). Small operators use vertical ball mills. Optimum flow properties are required for further processing. The yield value required differs according to the potential use (e.g. hollow moulding or enrobing). The particle size affects both the yield value and the plastic viscosity. In order to reduce recipe costs, the most expensive major constituent (i.e. fat) should be used in the smallest possible proportion which will give correct flow characteristics.

Introduction A functional food is a food that provides alimentative beyond their actual nutritional value & are claimed to have an extra function by the addition of new ingredients or more of already present ingredients into it. Functional food have also become a part of our everyday daily diet & are told to offer potential various health benefits other than the widely accepted nutritional effects among them. (Roberfroid MB 2009). Many bioactive active compounds are contained by them like roughage, OS, vitamins, inorganic elements, & bacterium probiotic, having scented whiff, relish & fineness, which sustain the balance & balance of the enteric system. Functional may also be said as artificer‘s foods, NC, restorative foods, curative food, & super food etc because of the roles & functions they perform. (Wlodzimierz Grajek et al., 2008). There are many utilitarian sequels of functional food & beverages with added bug & probiotics on the health of humans which are increasingly promoted & recommended by the nutritionists & other we-being professionals. (Aditya Chaudhary 2019). For a time being, the most salient & over & over again used functional foods amalgam are probiotics & probiotics, or they altogether called as symbiotic‘. he dwell Microbes or foods microbes, which are beneficial for human, are probiotics. (Armachius James &Yousheng Wang 2019).

Pectin
Pectin is a component of nearly all fruits and vegetables and can be extracted and used in food processing to form the characteristic gel in jams and marmalade. The richest sources of pectin are the peels of citrus fruits such as lime, lemon, orange and passion fruit or the pulp of apple (known as ‘pomace’ after juice has been extracted). Commercially, pectin is available as either a light brown powder or as a dark liquid concentrate. It is stable if stored in cool, dry place and it will lose only about 2 per cent of its gelling power per year.
There are two main types of pectin:
• High methoxyl (HM) pectin that form gels in high solids jams (above 55% solids) in a pH range of 2.0-3.5; and
• Low methoxyl (LM) pectin, which do not need sugar or acid to form a gel, but instead use calcium salts.

1. INTRODUCTION

With diverse agro-climatic conditions, India produces a wide variety of horticultural crops and out of these crops and out of these apple (Malus x domestica Borkh.) occupies a prominent position in India. It is processed into different products like juice, concentrates, wine, cider, canned slices etc. Apple processing is one of the major industries in countries of the world including India, where it is processed in different states like H.P, Jammu and Kashmir and Uttarakhand. Apple pomace is a left-over residue after juice extraction containing peel, seeds and remaining solid parts and represents about 25-35% of the weight of the fresh apple processed. At prasent, it is a waste and its disposal is a major environmental problem (Plate 1). Being precious natural resources its utilization is a challenge and opportunity to the scientists and technologists. It may be a good substrate for the pectin esterase enzyme, animal feed, citric acid, ethanol and biocolour production. It could be a good substrate for the production of microbial colours under SSF which otherwise require a costlier medium for its production. Different products using solid state fermentation of apple pomace forms the subject matter of this chapter. Here the efforts made to utilize apple pomace especially to explore the possibility of making value added products using Solid State Fermentation (SSF) have been summarized.

1. Introduction

There is intense commercial interest in dehydrated fruit and vegetable products especially mango powder, banana powder, orange powder, papaya cereal flakes to powder, tomato juice powder and other vegetable powders, which are in great demand for soups, biscuit type cookies supplemented with fruit powders (Ana Maria et al. 2009; Sunita and Chauhan 2008), pizza mixes and sauces. Natural fruit and vegetable powders are gaining lot of popularity in recent years as they are very easy to handle after production, require minimum storage space and they are attractive. Tamarind powder is developed from tamarind fruit (Tamarindus indica) (Manjunath et al. 1991) and recently cashew apple and guava residues from fruit juice industry were successfully converted into fruit powders and used at different levels of wheat flour substitution for cookies formulation (Ana Maria et al.2009) and fruit puree like papaya can be mixed with cereal flour to prepare slurry and after gelatinization, the slurry can be useful for preparing drum dried flakes and powder (Sunita and Chauhan 2008). Tropical fruits are exotic in flavor but their juices and purees are seldom available in dehydrated powder (James, 1971). Citrus juice concentrates were produced during world war II in powdered form by using spray, drum, vacuum-puff, and freeze drying (USDA, 1962). The preservation of fruits and vegetables by dehydration offers a unique method, which may be considered as an alternative low cost preservation technique. A shift from fresh to more and more processed foods with significant value addition is bound to occur sooner or later considering the socio-economic changes taking place in the country and the rapid integration of Indian economy with global system. Most popular brands are found in the “ready to consume” food sector.

2.1 Soil and Climate

Pomegranate grows well in sandy-loam and well-drained soils having a pH of 7.5. It can also be grown on light soils. Quality and colour development in light soils is good but poor in heavy soils. It tolerates salinity up to 9.00 EC/mm and sodicity 6.78 ESP. Even it can be grown well in slightly saline soils as it is considered a saline-tolerant plant (Patil and Waghmare 1983; Rao and Khandelwal 2001; Ram Asrey et al., 2002). Accumulation of salts, in excess of 0.5% of the soil mass causes dying off of growing roots. Interestingly, application of Paclobutrazol (250 ppm) was reported to reduce salinity damage (Saeed 2005). The presence of water-soluble salts like sulphates and chlorides and ex- changeable sodium negatively affect root formation.

Previous Year Questions

1. Write down the constraints of fruit processing industry in India (10M, CSE 2023)

2. Enlist & Explain the issues & challenges in the growth of food processing industry in India (10M, CSE 2022)

3. Give a detailed account of constraints in sustaining the food-grain production in India. (10M, IFoS 2020)

4. What are the major constraints of food production in India (10 mark, CSE 2020)

5. Describe the food production constraints in Indian agricultural system. (15M, IFoS-2018)

6. Indicate the major constraints in food procurement and distribution. (10M, CSE 2017)

7. Discuss the procurement and processing constraints of food grain. (15M, IFoS-2017)

Nutrients are organic and inorganic complexes contained in the food and it is essential for all living organisms for their normal body development. Macronutrients are the key biopolymers such as proteins, carbohydrates and lipids, which are needed in hefty quantities to provide the bulk of the energy while micronutrients (vitamins and minerals) are required in minor levels in the body; however, are indispensable for proper growth and development of living organisms. Food that cannot provide the right blend of energy including high-quality protein, essential fats, and carbohydrates as well as vitamins and minerals definitely impair growth and development, increase the risk of death from common childhood illness, or result in life-long health consequences. Fish and fishery products form a substantial part of human diet, both of poor and wealthy. Seafood is an excellent resource for proteins, vitamins, trace elements and polyunsaturated fat (omega-3 fatty acids). Profiling of nutrients is very much essential due to the ever-increasing awareness about healthy food which finds more acceptance towards the consumption of fish and fish products owing to its special nutritional qualities.

Profitability in the ice cream business depends on controlling costs and protecting value across the complete product journey. This chapter examines both backend and frontend profitability levers, including yield improvement, giveaway control, manufacturing efficiency, OEE, utilities, refrigeration, quality costs, procurement, channel economics, distributor performance, route profitability, freezer productivity, and return on investment. It emphasizes that high sales volume does not necessarily guarantee sustainable profitability. SKU economics, pricing discipline, working capital, cold-chain losses, stock ageing, and trade schemes must also be managed. The chapter presents a structured profitability-improvement approach that connects manufacturing discipline, commercial strategy, operational efficiency, and financial governance to stronger contribution, EBITDA, cash flow, and sustainable business growth.

Introduction

Biotechnology is defined as the ‘application of scientific and engineering principles to the processing of material by biological agents to provide goods and services’. The term ‘biotechnology’ is also used when a technique involving live organisms are employed to make or modify a product, improve plants or animals or develop microorganisms for specific uses. According to the definition of the Codex Alimentarius Commission (CAC 2001), modern biotechnology is defined as the application of (i) in vitro nucleic acid techniques, including recombinant deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and direct injection of nucleic acid into cells or organelles, or (ii) fusion of cells beyond the taxonomic family, that overcome natural physiological reproductive or recombination barriers, and that are not techniques used in traditional breeding and selection. Scientific developments of present world owe to processes and products of the field of biotechnology. Modern biotechnological advancements have played a major role in important branches of science such as agriculture, food processing, medicine and veterinary applications. Biotechnological interventions of the downstream processing applications include primary production areas namely breeding of crops and livestock, production of additives for food and feed and pharmaceuticals along with diagnostic tools. Inputs for food processing applications from biotechnology include biocatalysts such as enzymes, tracing food ingredients such as Genetically modified (GM) ingredients in end products of food and feed and food quality testing applications for food borne pathogens. Applications of modern biotechnology in form of genetically modified organisms have gained much importance in comparison to the downstream applications during food processing and food safety (Zhu, 2017). Food processing operations include transformation of harvested crop or animal produce into produce which are marketable with long shelf life and minimises waste and losses of raw produce in food chain and ensure their continuous availability in super market shelves. Food safety is an important area which assures of the food being safe for consumption. Food technological applications of modern biotechnology includes food enzymes that are important in various food processing applications in reactions involving lipids, carbohydrates and proteins, food fermentations to improve properties such as taste, flavour, texture, nutritional and shelf stability, food additives in form of bio preservatives, flavours, fragrances, genetically modified starter cultures, genetically modified crops, modern rapid diagnostic kits for food safety are discussed in detail.

Introduction of Food Industry

India is one of the major food producers in the world. The food sector contributes to about 28% of India's GDP. India stands at 1st position in the world for production of cereals, milk, livestock, banana and Mango, 2nd in producing fruits and vegetables and ranks amongst top 5 in producing rice, wheat, groundnut, tea, coffee, tobacco, spices, sugar and oilseeds. India's share in global production of fruits is 10% and vegetables are 13.7%. The current consumption of fruits and vegetables is approx Rs.2 lakh crores at current prices with an estimated growth rate of 11% per annum. The growth rate is higher than cereals and milk and comparable to meet consumption

Status of Food Processing Industry

The food processing industry in India is still in a sorry state. The rural population comprising 70% including small cities, consume less than 10% of the processed foods and vegetables, whereas 60% of the processed food is consumed in four major metropolitan cities and 30% in the state capitals and big cities. Another fact is that 40% of the processed food and vegetables produced in the country in terms of value are bought by institutional buyers like Hotels, Restaurants and Defense etc. The highest growth in domestic market has been in fruit drinks, tomato ketch up and Jams.

There is another fact that India is the largest milk producer in the world, however, organized industry accounts for less than 15% of the milk produce in India. It is estimated that there may be a total production of 1100 million tons of production of food products mainly food grains, oilseeds, sugarcane and fruits/vegetables during 2011-12 and leaving marketable surplus of 870 million tons.

Sexual Propagation in Pineapple

Pineapple occupy a gametophytic self-incompatibility system so that commercial cultivated pineapple rarely produces very few seeds in the field (Coppens d’Eeckenbrugge et al. 1992). However, if two varieties are grown close together and flowering time is same, it is chance for insect-aided crosspollination to set seeds. The vectors for natural cross-pollination vary with the location. Where humming birds are present, they are likely to be a primary pollinator. Where these birds are absent, honeybees and ants would be the main pollinators. The small corolla tube and the fact that pollen is not shed rule out wind as a pollinator. Since seedy fruit is not acceptable for either fresh or processing, it is rare to find more than one cultivar on large plantations. If more than one cultivaris grown in a farm, spatial separation and careful management of time of forcing will prevent seed production. However, cross-pollination between cultivars is used by pineapple breeders to generate new hybrids like “MD-2” and “CO-2” (Williams and Fleisch 1993). Sexual propagation is important for the generation of new varieties and is successfully used in pineapple breeding programs (Reinhardt et al., 2018). Pineapple Seeds are placed in shallow trays on moistened sand beds under controlled environmental conditions for germination(Junghans et al., 2015).Seed germination come up mostly from two weeks after sowing and rates are high, usually 80% or more (Chang et al., 2003). The new growing seedlings have 6 to 8 leaves stage within about three months after sowing and are then transplanted to pots with agricultural substrate and are grown under greenhouse or screen house conditions. After an additional 9 to 15 months of growth stage, during which the seedlings height reach 25 cm, which is considered adequate for planting in the field, the plants are finally acclimatized in an open nursery.

1. DEFINITIONS

Propagation : Propagation of plants may be defined as the controlled reproduction of plants by man to perpetuate selected individual or groups of individual plants which have specific value to him or it is the perpetuation of plants as independent units by means of seeds, bulbs, layers, cuttings, or grafts.

• Seed: A seed has been defined as a young plant packed ready to start growing when required.
• Apomixis: Development of seeds without the complete sexual process is known as apomixes and seed produced in this manner is called apomictic seeds.
• Seed dormancy: The embryo of the seed remains in inactive stage from the time of its development to the time it germinates. This failure of the embryo is termed as dormancy of the seed.
• After-ripening: Some seeds germinate fully when freshly harvested, but they germinate after a period of dry storage. The change taking place in such seeds are known as after- ripening.
• Embryo dormancy: Conditions existing within the embryo.
• After-ripening dormancy: Seeds fail to germinate when freshly harvested, but they germinate after a period of dry storage. Such seeds are known as after-ripening dormant seeds. This is due to the physiological changes taking place in embryo.

Spices play important roles in daily life and India is a rich repository of spices. Various biotechnological approaches like micropropagation, somaclonal variation, in vitro conservation, synseed technology, protoplast fusion, production of flavor and coloring components, and development of novel transgenics have great significance in conservation, utilization and increasing the production and productivity of spices. Protocols for micropropagation and production of disease free planting materials are available for many spices. Efficient plant regeneration protocols are also available for exploiting somaclonal variation ,where the available natural variability is relatively low. Technologies for isolation and culture of protoplasts were reported in a few spices. Development of transgenics for disease resistance is gaining momentum. Synseed and Micro-rhizome technology are also available for many spices for safe propagation, conservation, movement, and exchange of germplasm. In vitro and cryo preservation technologies for conservation of spices germplasm are available for many spices.

Introduction

Fisheries and aquaculture are important source of food, nutrition and livelihood for millions of people around the world. Aquaculture is the fastest growing food-production sector in the global aquaculture with production of 73.8 Million tonnes in 2014 (FAO, 2016) expanding into new directions, intensifying and diversifying. A persistent goal of global aquaculture is to maximize the efficiency of production to optimize profitability.

Infectious diseases pose of the most significant threats to successful aquaculture. Intensively cultured fish and shellfish are susceptible to infectious agents. The losses due to shrimp diseases in India is valued at Rs. 10, 221 million. Globally, the yield loss due to diseases in aquaculture is estimated to be $ 6 billion. A variety of antimicrobial and chemical treatments have been used for the control and treatment of bacterial diseases in aquaculture systems. The emergence of antimicrobial resistance in bacteria due to application of antibiotics in aquaculture and the toxic nature of chemicals led to the search for alternatives for the control of infection. Here, we discuss the several alternatives to antibiotics that have been successfully used in aquaculture.

1. Introduction Proso millet (Panicum miliaceum (L.) belongs to the grass family Paniceae. It is a perennial cropthat grows in summer each year as late-seeded summer crop (Figure 1). Its origin can be traced back to at least 2000 B.C. when it was said to be grown in the Central European regions. Proso millet plant thrives in dry areas such as Africa, Central Russia, Manchuria, Middle East and Northern India and North America’s Great Plains. Proso millet was introduced to Canada in the 17th century and used sparingly as a feed crop in the early 1900s (Rajasekaran and Francis, 2021). This is a low-demand crop and is utilised in organic farming systems across Europe and as an intercrop in the United States. Its shallow root system and resistance to atrazine residue make it a great intercrop between two crops that need a lot of water and pesticides. The last crop’s stubbles entrap more heat into the soil which promotes faster and earlier growth of millet. Hence, it can help to evade summer drought and achieve continual crop rotation (Kalinova and Moudry, 2006). It is an erect herbaceous annual crop with a lot of tillering. Its plant can reach a height of 45-100 centimetres. The stem is thin, with prominently enlarged nodes. The roots are thin and fibrous.

1.1 Introduction Among the C4 grasses known as panicoids (subfamily: panicoideae), which also includes nutrient-rich cereals like millets and sorghum as well as commercially valuable crops like switchgrass, napier grass, and guinea grass, are bioenergy feedstocks like sugarcane and miscanthus. Among all, millets overpowered others in terms of biotic/abiotic stress resilience, resource sustainability as well as nutritional benefits. Minor millets, often known as nutritional cereals, are a type of small-seeded grains that are members of the Poaceae family. Up to 35 kinds of grass from 20 genera are well-known for being minor millets. Finger millet, foxtail, proso millet, barnyard millet, kodo millet, and little millet are the most significant small millets that are grown worldwide. India is the leading producer and consumer of millet crops and their products. The total area of small millets in India is around 1.63 m ha, with a production of 1.82 m tones during the year 2016- 17 (Annual progress report 2018-19, ICAR-AICRP on small millets).

Like other sectors of the economy food processing sector also suffers from certain constraints. The challenges for the food conservation, distribution and processing sectors are diverse and demanding, which need to be addressed to leverage the growth of agriculture and food processing sector. Following are the major challenges and strategies are suggested to overcome the challenges (Sakina, 2019).

6.1. Domestic Constraints in the Development of Food Processing Industry in India

Despite the significant economic potential of the FPI in India, it still faces massive domestic challenges, which include low level of processing, fragmented structure of the industry, consumer perception and lack of skilled manpower. Firstly, low level of processing means that at industrial level, less food is processed, as compared to household level. Most of the traditional food items like jams, jellies, pickles etc. are prepared at small manufacturing units or by households (Agarwal & Neogi, 2017).

Secondly, consumer perception with regard to processed food in India is not very optimistic and they consider that packaged food is not fresh, thus, leading to low consumption of processed food. Thirdly, food processing sector is still highly fragmented and unorganised. This led to the inefficacies in the sector and has failed to achieve the economies of scale (Agarwal & Neogi, 2017).

7.1. Challenges in Milk Quality

Demand for milk and milk products in India is growing very rapidly, owing to urbanization, customer convenience, and the change from loose to packaged milk products. At present, the dairy sector is rising at about 10-12 per cent annually. Based on population growth projections and an increase in urbanization over the next four decades, India is projected to need approximately 600 million tonnes of milk per year to meet the demand for milk and milk products. This means that India’s milk production needs to grow at around 3.2 per cent CAGR for the next 40 years (FICCI, 2020).

Main reason of poor quantity of milk is due to unhygienic and poor condition of animal farms and dairies. Even due to high demand in foreign country we cannot export such poor quality of milk product. Many times, Indian milk products get rejected in foreign nations due to unhygienic milking milk contains high number of microbial counts. Reasons behind the quality affected in India are due to poor health of animal, polluted water and food and Unclean surrounding in farm. So, it is necessary to consider all this challenges in improving milk production. Currently most of the milking animals are not screened on regular interval of time. So, there is lots of chances that some diseases can transmitted to human beings. Farmers use antibiotics and chemical drugs to increase the production of milk this will also affect the quality of milk. These issues can be avoided by regular screening of animals in animal husbandry and also maintaining history records of health, feed etc. Quality of feed should be checked regularly. There must be pollution control in the feed and water used in cattle farms (Bhagyalaxmi, 2020).

The major challenges to any developing society are poverty and economic deprivation of its ruralpopulation.Eradication of poverty, the focus of all developmental efforts has remained a very complicated and serious concern among developing countries. Poverty is abysmal rooted covering several interlocked aspects such as lack of asset, under employment, uncertain and relatively unproductive employment, low remuneration, economic vulnerability, illiteracy, social disadvantage etc.

The rural areas were found to be more prone to poverty, even if it exists in urban areas also. The rural poor are perpetuating poverty and are the victims of the “vicious cycle of poverty”. Fishing communities in the coastal belts all over the world are also not an exception to this. Poverty in fishing communities is very common and is characterized by high population density, poor living conditions, lack of proper education and poor access to education and health care. Due to poor attention paid by the state, the infrastructure support like roads, electricity, good drinking water, markets etc also are be poor. Though efforts for reducing fishing pressure is taken by Government, scope for alternative employment opportunities are less. Thus those sector that are in engaged inthe world’s most dangerous occupations, are considered on par with SC/ST communities as far as India is concerned. The loss of a boat, gear or an active fisherman in the family can be tragic and lead to total financial deprivation of the family. Hence poverty and vulnerability in fishing communities is widely known but poorly addressed issue. As in rural farming sector, dependence of fishing communities on private moneylenders continues in many areas, especially for meeting emergent requirements. For various reasons, credit to these sections of the population has not been institutionalized.

The emergence of microfinance as an alternative financial delivery mechanism was a response to the failure of past efforts by government and international agencies effectively to provide financial services to the poor. But while considering micro finance programmes for fisheries sector, there should be special considerations that are unique to fishing communities and need special consideration. Instead of random payment of loans to target sectors and populations, efforts were taken for setting up and building local institutions that cater for the poor. This resulted in the materialization of microfinance institutions (MFIs) that serve the rural poor. MFIs initially started providing microcredit but have now extended their services to savings, insurance etc.

Introduction

Protected cultivation or greenhouse cultivation is the most common technique to grow vegetable crops qualitatively and quantitatively, and has spread widely all over the world in recent decades. Greenhouse agriculture is also known as environmentally controlled planting. The technology involves the cultivation of vegetable crops in a regulated environment in which factors such as tem perature, soil, light, humidity, irrigation, fertilizers, etc. are controlled in order to achieve optimum production and ensure a steady supply even in off-season conditions. In India, the total area under protected cultivation or green house is currently approximately 25 000 ha whereas the protected vegetable area is approximately 2000 ha which has been challenged by land ownership limita tions, decreasing crop production, rapid urbanization, ever increasing popu lation and decreasing biodiversity. Food demand, especially vegetables, has increased growing of different crop varieties as protected crops, or greenhouse has opened up a new dimension to extra production within a limited crop area.

1. The protein is derived from Greek word “Proteins” which means
   1. Principal
   2. Prime
   3. Holding the first place
   4. All of the above
2. The name protein to the group of organic compounds that are utmost important to life is suggested by
   1. Mulder
   2. Berzelius
   3. Kulim
   4. Sanger

Introduction

Proteins are the most abundant organic compounds constituting major part of the body. Chemically, proteins are nitrogen containing macromolecules and polymers of L α-amino acids, which serve a wide range of structural and biological functions in animal body. For example, connective tissue made up of collagen, metabolicenzymes, neuro transmitters,signal in gmolecules, structural components of cell membranes and cell organelles, etc. all are chemically proteins.

Before goinginto the details of protein metabolism, first, we need to understand that there are majorly two sources of proteins in our body: dietary protein and body protein. Dietary protein is taken in diet, while body protein indicates the protein and amino acids synthesized in animal body to fulfill the requirements for growth and development. The digestion of proteins will not be discussed here as it has been described in detail in chapter 12. Dietary protein is digested in presence of several enzymes such as trypsin, pepsin, chymotrypsin, aminopeptidases and carboxypeptidases and is converted into mono-, di- and oligopeptides in stomach and small intestine; and finally converted into amino acids. These amino acids are transported to the systemthrough intestinal mucosa via active transport, from where they enter into the cells for further metabolism. Therefore, ‘metabolismof proteins’ is more appropriatelylearnt as ‘metabolism of amino acids’.

1.    The basic building block(s) of proteins is/are

(a) Amino acids

(b) Phenolics

(c) Carboxylic acids

(d) Fatty acids

2.    Alpha helix and ?- pleated sheet are characteristic of protein structure?

(a) Primary

(b) Secondary

(c) Tertiary

(d) Quaternary

1. INTRODUCTION

Proteins are polymers of amino acids. Twenty different types of amino acids occur naturally in proteins. Proteins differ from each other according to the type, number and sequence of amino acids that make up the polypeptide backbone. Proteins are the important constituents of foods for a number of reasons. They are a major source of energy, as well as containing essential amino-acids, like lysine, tryptophan, methionine, leucine, isoleucine and valine which are essential to human health, but which the body cannot synthesize. Proteins are also the major structural components of many natural foods, often determining their overall texture, e.g., tenderness of meat or fish products. Isolated proteins are often used in foods as ingredients because of their unique functional properties, i.e., their ability to provide desirable appearance, texture or stability.

Proteins are complex organic molecules made up of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen. Most proteins also contain sulphur and phosphorus and also play an important role in food preparation. The final quality of many food products are influenced by how the proteins are treated while food is being prepared.

Traditionally, Labour Laws have a protective function consisting of established standards both to protect workers in their workplace and to provide them a basic minimum level of living conditions. Alongwith this function, there also existed in most systems, a legal framework for the regulation of industrial relations between employers and workers. These functions had their impact on problems of development. The emphasis was more on labour legislation for its own sake, development being a separate proposition. This mutual lack of concern was perhaps due to historical factors. The most important aspect is the fact that in developed countries of the Western world, labour legislation followed the emergence of industrialization and in response to a demand for economic and social betterment of the workers, whereas in developing countries the emergence of labour laws preceded industrial growth.

5.1 Introduction

The medium used in various unit operations of food process engineering such as heating, cooling, drying, mixing and transport processes, is moist air, which is a mixture of two substances. One of these is dry air which itself is a mixture of number of gases and the other is water vapour which may exist in a saturated or superheated state. The properties of moist air are called psychrometric properties and the subject, which involves determination of thermodynamic properties of moist air, is known as psychrometry. Thus, psychrometry is that branch of engineering science, which deals with the study of moist air i.e. dry air mixed with water vapour or humidity. Knowledge of properties of moist air is imperative in design of systems such as air- conditioning equipment for storage of fresh produce, dryers for drying of cereal grains, and cooling towers in food processing plants. In this chapter, important thermodynamic properties used in psychrometric computations are defined. Psychrometric charts useful in determining such properties are presented. In addition, various psychrometric process used in food process engineering are discussed.

Abstract

Pulse combustors provide an advantageous superposition of unsteady gas flow and high intensity sound waves. Such a combination does not only accelerate drying rates because of increased heat and mass transfer but also allows processing of liquids, pastes and agglomerated solids in a dispersed state due to aerodynamic impact from the high intensity sound wave. Over last decades, applications of pulse combustion in drying have been exploited continuously and different pulse combustion dryers have been designed and fabricated. In pilot tests and technical reports on these dryers, short drying time, high energy efficiency and product quality are generally reported, which cause that pulse combustion drying is regarded as a technology of the future in convective drying.

This chapter attempt to introduce basic knowledge and state-of the art about this emerging technology and summarizes some recent studies in pulse combustion drying and equipment design. Following a concise description of pulse combustion and pulse combustor, the basic types of pulse-combustion dryers are presented, including spray dryers, fluidized bed dryers, impinging dryers, and dryers of special design. The existing commercial applications and pilot test projects are described and potential applications are identified.

1. Clean and wash the pulses, Mix the pulses with water, soak for 1 hour, 3 hours, 6hours, 9hours and overnight.
2. After soaking drain the water wash thoroughly and add fresh water keep it for boiling/cooking.
3. Study the effect of Acid and effect of Alkali on cooking time of pulses.

Abstract

Consumers increased response to new products with high sensory, organoleptic and nutritional potentials has impelled a search for new substitutes to processing methods. For several years, thermal processing was the main technology for producing safe products with long shelf lives, although in most cases losses of fresh flavors, vitamins, and some physicochemical characteristics were the price of safety and long-term stability. Pulsed electric field (PEF) processing as a non- thermal technique has been proven to inactivate microorganisms with minimal losses of flavor and food quality, possibly making it the answer to present-day consumer demands. In addition, the low processing temperatures used in this non- thermal technology allow the process to be nutrient preserving, energy efficient, which translates into lower costs and fewer environmental impacts. In this chapter, the the configuration of various PEF equipment, their electric configuration and recent application of this technique in processing of foods have been discussed in detail.

6.1 Introduction

Consumer demand, regulatory guidelines and economic power of the consumer as well as ascertained profitability stimulated the need of novel food processing techniques. The concept of “fresh”, “natural”, or “organic” food also led to the development of environmentally sound and resource efficient food processing technologies. Thermal processes have been used for food preservation since a long time. These are not very energy efficient and can change the phase of food from fresh to cooked as well as it can alter the nutritional and sensory qualities. Thus, the quest for energy conservation by the manufacturers to reduce carbon footprint of the processes involved in food processing and preservation as well as to fulfill consumers’ requirement for fresh-like quality food have given rise to the development of innovative non-thermal food processing technologies i.e. ionizing radiation, high-intensity light pulses, high isobaric pressure, electric or oscillating magnetic fields, as well as pulsed electric fields (PEF).

Application of electric energy in food processing started in the early 1900s. In the beginning, electrical pasteurization inactivated microorganisms by increasing the temperature of samples by means of an electrical resistance (ohmic heating). Milk was the first electrically pasteurized product. In the late 1940s, electric fields were used to increase the permeability of fruits to facilitate the subsequent extraction of juices. The PEF technology as a non-thermal process is very effective for inactivation of microorganisms, increasing the pressing efficiency, enhancing the juice extraction, and for intensification of the food dehydration and drying process. The main effect of PEF technology is based on the phenomena that biological membranes are punctured under the influence of external electrical impulses. This process is often referred as non-thermal, since the structural damage to membranes is implemented at very low temperature compared to the conventional heating process. The PEF process is considered to be energy efficient because the electric energy is released in short pulses, thus total energy requirement is much lower than other continuous preservation technologies. The microbial inactivation can be achieved at ambient or moderately elevated temperatures by the application of short-bursts of high intensity electric fields to liquid foods flowing between two electrodes or to semi-solid/ solid food between some specialized electrode and treatment systems. Due to chemical/physical properties and presence of electrical charge, the liquid foods (e.g. milk or fruit juices) had different conductivity, which results in variable flux of electrical current through the food systems.

1. Introduction

Thermal processing treatments are the conventional methods that have been broadly employed in the food industry to guarantee the microbiological safety of food materials at a minimal cost. However, these thermal treatments cause undesirable changes in flavor, nutritive value, texture, or color of the finished product that impact food quality (Pan et al., 2017). Growing the modern consumer’s demand towards the minimally processed and “fresh-like” taste foods has challenged the food industry to develop novel non-thermal preservation techniques as an alternative to thermal processing. 

INTRODUCTION

Pulses are edible fruits or seeds of food bearing plants belonging to the family of the leguminosae. The major pulses which find important place in our diet are redgram dhal, bengal gram dhal, black gram dhal, green gram dhal and masoor dhal. Some are used as whole grams cow pea, rajmah and dry peas also belong to leguminous family.

Legumes not only have dietary values but also play an important role in maintaining or even improving soil fertility through their ability to fix atomospheric nitrogen.

Introduction

Foods prepared by fermenting raw ingredients of plant or animal sources naturally or mixing it with the starter culture (s) containing functional micro flora is called fermented foods. The functional micro flora used in starter culture is responsible for biochemical and organoleptic alteration of the substrates into edible yields which are socially and culturally appropriate to consumers (Tamang et al., 2010a, Tamang et al., 2010b). Fermented food has its own characteristic microflora and this group of micro flora increases the nutritional value by increasing the levels of essential amino acids, vitamins, proteins, etc.

Fermented foods play a major role in meeting nutritional requirement and socio economic development of developing countries. They are important components of the diet as staples, adjuncts to staples, condiments and beverages. A wide variety of fermenting substrates are available such as cereals, pulses, soya beans, flowers, milk, fish, meat, etc. A wide majority of plants and their parts are often utilized in the preparation of starter culture (Deori et al., 2007, Deka and Sarma, 2010).

Q10 value: The number of times a reaction rate change with a 10oC change in temperature is called Q10 value. If reaction rate doubles with 10oC change in temperature, Q10 = 2. It is also called temperature quotient.

Q-enzyme: It is a branching enzyme responsible for formation of 1-6 bonds in amylopectin.

QHV process: It stands for Quality Has Value Process.

QO2 : It is a unit for measurement of respiration. Or It is the oxygen uptake in microlitres per milligram on dry weight per hour.

Quailing: In this practice the oranges are kept in the baskets in which they are harvested to allow the fruit to loose little moisture. It is done for a couple of hours before transport to packhouse. This practice would allow the fruit to lose a little moisture which is called quailing. This operation is done for oranges to prevent Oleocellosis.

Qualitative measurement: It is a subjective / objective measurement of the quality of the product for presence of certain compound. It gives the idea of the presence or absence of the particular compound. It deals with the nature of the substance and not its amount or quantity.

The raw material of foremost importance in bakery product is the wheat flour. Bakery units prefer the flour obtained by milling in roller flourmill with 70– 72 percent extraction. Flour quality may be defined as the ability of the flour to produce an attractive end product at competitive cost, under conditions imposed by the end product manufacturing unit. The concept of quality differs from producer and consumer point of view. However, in general, the term quality may refer to fitness of a raw material or a product for a particular process or consumer. For a consumer, the following parameters are important criteria of a product quality.

The art of confectionery manufacture date back to over 3000 years as per Egyptian records. Traditionally honey, boiled and concentrated sugar cane juices have been used in confectioneries. In modern times, alternative sweeteners from sources like corn and starches constitute an integral part of confectionery manufacture.

Owing to the huge variation in finished products as well as raw materials in food sector, Quality control has an extremely important role to play. Quality control aims at controlling variation to within a tolerable level by taking corrective actions. Statistical and non-statistical techniques are employed to measure, analyze and control variation in food products. Statistical process control, acceptance sampling and visual inspection are widely used in food and allied sectors.

Maintenance of quality and manufacture of a standard confectionery should involve a very close control of raw materials, instrumentation, and statistical analysis of finished product. Statistical evaluation with respect to finished product includes weight control, sensory evaluation and packaging tests. The quality standards are set by the quality control departments. Chemists may undertake preliminary analysis through visual inspection. Visual inspection is usually combined with sampling. This gives an idea of variation, cleanliness, infestation etc. in the sample.

India has emerged as the largest producer of milk in the World. This has boosted the confidence of producers, planners, dairy entrepreneurs and scientist alike. India has poised to play a major role in global dairy market in coming decade. The rapid growth of science and technology has positive impact on our life style and with strong trend of urbanization several demographic changes are likely to occur. There going to be ever increasing demand on the role of milk and milk products for human health. Accordingly, the demand for higher standards of milk products in terms of hygiene and safety of dairy products is to be followed. The competitiveness for the export of milk products among different dairy industry has increased in recent times due to GATT agreement. The biggest challenge before Indian dairy industry is the quality and safety of milk products indented for human consumption. Legal standards are made to have control over quality of food offered for sale and to safe guard the consumer form health hazards. It is therefore, imperative to determine different parameters that define product quality and safety. The purpose is to ensure production and distribution of products within well defined and accepted standards. This chapter deals with various parameters of product testing in order to maintain requisite prescribed standards.

Milk is a product of biological origin and is a suitable vehicle to accommodate any additive without apparent changes in its look. The quality of milk and its products depends upon quality of raw milk used in their manufacture, processing and handling conditions. It is therefore, necessary to check quality of raw milk to assess its suitability for processing, through various quick tests called “Platform Tests”

Raw milk quality assessment

(A) At collection center: - Milk from various suppliers is generally collected at dairy factory or privately owned collection centers located in marked area of milk sheds. The quantum of supply may vary from 2 – 100 Liters. As each supplier has to be paid in relation to quantity and quality of his produce, it is important to draw samples and ascertain its quality by performing quick tests for the purpose of acceptance or rejection.

Sampling procedures - The sampling procedure differs according to the nature of material and the purpose for which the sample is required. The sample collected for chemical analysis should be representative of the entire batch. Thorough mixing with proper instrument is essential to ensure representative sample. Samples for chemical analysis are to be delivered the same day for testing. If un-avoided, add small amount of preservative (Formaldehyde) to prevent deterioration and bear label to the effect.

Sample from single container – The procedure involved is thorough mixing of contents. If it is small container the contents should be poured from one vessel to another with swirling. In case of can the contents should be mixed with the help of plunger which should be moved up and down and sideways for about 10-15 times. The sample is then drawn with the help of dipper from different levels and collected in clean and dry sample bottles.

India has achieved a commendable position of being the highest milk producing country in the world. Nearly 110 million tons of milk per annum is contributed by small and marginal farmers having 2-3 milch animals which are scattered in lakhs of villages across the length and breath of India. The poor socio-economic conditions are serious constraints in producing raw milk of good quality. The quality of milk is further deteriorated during subsequent handling and transportation. Milk being a product of biological origin, is extremely vulnerable to attack by microbes. It is also a good vehicle for additives and adulterants without any apparent changes in its appearance. Thus, milk is susceptible to several post-secretion changes, some natural and some man-made.

Indian dairy industry faces a mammoth task to meet the world quality standards, particularly in the present context of globalization and increasing quality conscious consumers. In view of the highly perishable nature of milk soon after it is secreted, it is important to monitor its quality by having a firmly installed quality assurance programme along the entire production-to-supply chain. This can be possible with application of sensitive, accurate and rapid methodologies as a tool in quality assurance programmes.

Quality comprises of several attributes ranging from physical, chemical, technological and bacteriological through nutritional to aesthetic. All dairy plants have a quality assurance laboratory (Fig. 8.1) and usually follow chemical quality control with the intention of payments to contractors/producers, processing of milk and meeting mandatory requirements for end products. Quality is judged both by objective and subjective tests.

We all are familiar with the word “quality”. If we bring some fruits or vegetables from the market, the other family members will reflect on their quality by making observations such as: fresh or stale, good or bad quality or inferior product, etc. These observations are perceptions of consumers based on the sensory attributes of the fruit or vegetable colour, appearance, touch, smell or taste.

The quality characteristics of food that are acceptable to consumers are comprehended under the term “Food Quality. It includes external factors such as appearance (size, shape, colour, gloss, and consistency); internal factors (chemical, physical, microbiological) and characteristics/ specifications prescribed under the Government laws/standards. If consumer’s perceptions regarding quality of food are not positive he or she either will not purchase the material or will be paying less compared to when the consumer has positive perception about the quality.

The relationship between quality, profitability and market share has been well established. In the quest of quality, the dairy business is passing through revolutionary changes and the need for such changes has been very well realized. The leaders have initiated the process of setting vision and are working hard to provide the basic infrastructure with necessary resources. This has become a point of vital importance as the nation has now captured the first rank in milk production globally and is now ready and set to march ahead in the global race for dairy products market. Our country has great potential to export the dairy products such as cheese particularly Mozzarella, Feta, and indigenous products such as ghee, khoa, chhana, paneer, and array of sweets. Food items or dairy products to be traded in the international markets should be manufactured in accordance with global accepted norms and standards. In order to improve the quality of milk and milk products the Government of India is focusing on “Clean Milk Production”. As a dairy technologists and entrepreneurs, we must ensure production of quality products.

Introduction

Seafood undergoes rapid spoilage after capture or harvest due to their highly perishable nature. Spoilage refers to any change that renders seafood unacceptable for human consumption. Spoilage occurs as a consequence of various microbial, biochemical and chemical breakdown processes. Spoilage leads to quality changes in seafood. Quality change refers to any change that occur after harvest due to unpredictable catch, uncontrolled harvest, inadequate handling, processing and storage facilities. The initial quality loss is mainly due to the post-mortem autolytic activity (enzymatic process) and chemical degradation process (lipid oxidation); and later by microbial degradation. The quality problems occur as a result of poor-quality raw material, ice and water, microbiological contamination, presence of heavy metals and other storage aspects during processing.

Processing of fish means preparing raw fish into a marketable form. Pre processing is done prior to final processing. Pre-processing is often done on board fishing vessel or in a shore based plant. It includes operation such as washing, sorting, grading, butchering, etc of the harvested fish. The butchering involves removal of non-edible portions such as viscera, head, tails and fins from fish. The yield of fish meat varies from 30 to 70% depending on the butchering process. Butchering process includes beheading, gutting, filleting, peeling, deveining, shucking, etc. The discarded portion of fish meat are fish wastes, often used for animal feed or for conversion to bioactive functional foods. Final processing of fish includes processes such as heating, freezing, drying, salting, marinading, irradiation, or addition of chemicals. The processed seafood is categorized into five major groups – chilled, frozen, canned, cured and other value-added products in this chapter.

Quality control plays a vital role in ensuring food safety and freshness. Inspecting, testing, and grading fruits and vegetables is essential to confirm that food products meet safety standards. In today’s globalized food industry, quality control tests are conducted at various stages throughout the supply chain, from cultivation and harvesting to processing, packaging, transportation, and distribution.
In agriculture, the quality of grain is determined by its intended use. In ethanol production, factors such as starch content are crucial, while in food and feed manufacturing, properties like protein, oil, and sugar are of primary importance. In the milling industry, the soundness of grain is the most significant factor in determining its quality. For grain farmers, high germination percentages and seed dormancy are essential characteristics to monitor. For consumers, visual qualities such as color and flavor are key indicators of quality. Quality control ensures that the grain meets the needs of both producers and consumers while maintaining food safety.
RESOURCES FOR QUALITY CONTROL
PRE-HARVEST TESTING
Pre-harvest tests are essential tools that help growers assess the needs of their crops. These tests assist in making informed decisions regarding nutrition or pesticide applications, determining the optimal harvest windows, and supporting various farm management decisions. By conducting pre-harvest testing, farmers can enhance crop health, improve yields, and ensure that their crops are ready for harvesting at the best possible time.
Starch Iodine Test
Starch is a carbohydrate present in various plants, including apples. As apples ripen, the starch gradually converts into sugar. The amount of starch in an apple