eChapters

1.    Modern Packaging Systems
    1.1    Modified atmosphere packaging
    1.2    Active packaging-principles and applications
    1.3    Aseptic packaging
    1.4    Shrink packaging
    1.5    Vacuum packaging
    1.6    Thermal processing
    1.7     Retort pouch packaging
    
2.    Packaging of Fish and Fishery Products
    2.1    Packaging materials used
    
3.    Packaging Requirements for Fish and Fishery Products
    3.1    Packaging of fresh fish
    3.2     Packaging of processed seafoods
    
Suggested Reading

1.    Introduction
    
2.    Different Forms of Value Added Products
    
3.    Production of Fish Steaks
    
4.    Battered and Breaded Products
    
5.    Minced Fish Based Products
    5.1    Fish cakes
    5.2    Fish cutlets
    5.3    Fish sausage
    5.4    Dehydrated salted fish cakes
    5.5    Fish fingers
    5.6    Fish burgers
    5.7    Fish balls
    5.8    Fish wafers
    5.9    Fish soup powder
    
6.    Surimi and Surimi Based Products
    6.1    Kamaboko
    6.2    Chikuwa
    6.3    Tempura
    6.4    Hampen
    
7.    Modern Seafood Analog Products
    7.1    Imitation crab meat
    
8.    Marinated Fish Products
    
9.    Fermented Fish Products
    9.1    Fish pickle
    
10.    Sous Vide Cook-Chill Products
    
11.    Precooked Seafood Entrees
    
12.    Future Needs
    
References

1.    Introduction
    
2.    Edible coatings used in Seafood Products
    2.1    Pre-dust
    2.2    Batter
    2.3    Breading
    
3.    The Coating Process
    3.1    Portioning
    3.2    Pre-dusting
    3.3    Application of batter
    3.4    Application of breading
    3.5    Pre-frying / Flash frying
    3.6    Freezing
    3.7    Packing and storage
    
4.    Coating Process Equipment
    4.1    Forming machine
    4.2    Pre-dusting machine
    4.3    Batter application equipment
    4.4    Breading application equipment
    4.5    Fryers
    4.6    Spiral freezers
    
5.    Coating Process Lines
    5.1     Single line breading system
    5.2     Tandem line breading system
    5.3     Tempura or batter-fry  Line breading system
    5.4     Tempura-Japanese Line breading system
    
6.    Coated Fishery Products
    6.1    Fish fingers
    6.2     Coated fish sillets
    6.3     Fish mince based coated products
    6.4     Coated shrimp products
    6.5     Coated squid products
    6.6     Coated bivalve products
    6.7     Crab claw balls
    
7.    Common Quality Problems Encountered during the Coating of Seafood
    7.1     Voids
    7.2     Blow off
    7.3     Pillowing
    7.4     Tailings
    
8.     Innovative Processes in the Production of Coated Products
    
References

1.    Introduction
    
2.    Dressing of Fish
    
3.    Preparation of Minced Meat
    
4.    Preparation of Flavor Ingredients
    
5.    Preparation of Colouring Ingredients
    
6.    Leaching of Minced Meat

7.    Ingredients Selected and their Role
    
8.    Preparation of Flavors
    
9.    Starch and its Role
    
10.    Extraction of Colours and its Application
    
11.    Taste Eenhancers
    
12.    Addition of Oil
    
13.    Standardized Preparation of Prawn Analogue from Bigeye Snapper
    
14.    Prawn Analogue Developed from Lizard Fish
    
15.    Cooking of the Shrimp Analogue
    
16.    Battering and Breading of the Analogue
    
17.    Freezing of the Product
    
18.    Frying of Prawn Analogue
    
19.    Packing of the Analogue
    
20.    Storage of Analogue
    
21.    Bacteriological Quality of Analogue
    
References

1.    Introduction
    
2.    Resources
    2.1    Crustacea
    2.2    Zooplankton
    2.3     Mollusca
    2.4     Insecta
    2.5     Thallophyta
    
3.    Biosynthesis
    
4.    Structure
    
5.    Detection and Estimation of Chitosan
    
6.    Specification of Chitin and Chitosan
    
7.    Economics of Chitin Recovery and Production
    
8.    Social and Economic Value of Chitosan
    
9.    Production of  Chitosan from Chitin
    
10.    Production of Glucosamine Hydrochloride
    
11.    Recent Advances in Applications of Chitin and Chitosan
    11.1    Applications of chitin, chitosan and glucosamine hydrochloride
    
12.    Advantages of Chitosan
    12.1    Cholesterol and overweight lowering
    12.2    Cholesterol lowering in Human
    12.3    Osteoarthritis prevention and Treatment
    12.4    Carrier for nasal application of drugs
    
13.    Conclusion
    
References and Further Reading

    
1.    Introduction
    
2.    Containers
    2.1     Materials used for forming containers
    2.2    Types of cans
    2.3    Labeling and coding
    2.4    Can seam
    
3.    Microbilogical Aspects
    3.1     Organisms associated with non acid foods
    3.2     Heat resistance of bacteria
    3.3     Logarithmic order of destruction
    3.4     Thermal death time curve
    3.5     Determination of TDT and survivor number
    3.6     F-value
    3.7    12 D concept
    
4.    Heat Penetration Aspects
    4.1    Factors that influence heat penetration
    4.2    Measurement of cold spot temperature
    
5.    Thermal Process Calculation
    5.1    General method
    5.2    Formula method
    
6    Inoculated Pack Studies

7.    Effect of Thermal Processing on Food Quality
    7.1    Cook value
    
8.    Steps of Canning Fish
        
    8.1    Handling raw material
    8.2    Dressing and size cutting
    8.3    Salt treatment
    8.4    Precooking
    8.5    Smoking
    8.6    Packing/ Filling
    8.7    Exhausting and seaming
    8.8     Retorting and cooling
    8.9    Inspection and storage

References

1.    What is Surimi?
    
2.    Fisheries Resources for Surimi Production

    
3.    Historical Perspective of the Surimi Industry
    
4.    Present World Scenario of Surimi Industry

5.    Surimi Industry in India
    
6.    Processing Technology for Surimi from Light Muscle Fish 
    6.1     Types of fish used for surimi
    6.2     Heading, gutting, and deboning
    6.3     Mincing
    6.4     Washing and dewatering
    6.5     Stabilizing surimi with cryoprotectants
    6.6      Rapid freezing and packaging
    
7.    Surimi Processing from Dark Muscle Fish
    
8.    Quality Evaluation of Surimi
    
9.    Microbial Quality of Surimi
    
10.    Surimi based Products
    10.1     Fish cakes
    10.2     Fish balls
    10.3     Crab analogs (Crab leg meat analog)
    
11.    Scallop Analogs
    
12.    Moulded Products
    
13.    Important Considerations in Surimi and Surimi based Products
    13.1    Gelation
    
14.    Functional Properties of Surimi

15.    Cryoprotectants in Surimi
    15.1    Mechanism of action of cryoprotectants
    
16.    Future Development in Fish Protein Stabilization
    
References

1     Introduction

2     Bacterial Flora on Fish

3     Products of Bacterial Activity

4      Bacterial Flora of Fish Caught from Different Waters

5      Fish Spoilage and Bacterial Flora

6      Bacterial Contaminations
    
7      Bacterial Contamination of Harvested Fish
    
8      Growth of Spoilage Bacteria
    
9      Scombroid Poisoning
    
10      Microorganisms on Iced Fish
    10.1     Crustaceans
    10.2     Molluscs
    
References

1.    Introduction
    
2.    Structure of Protein
    2.1     Primary structure
    2.2     Secondary structure
    2.3     Turns and Bends in the Polypeptide Backbone
    2.4     Tertiary structure
    2.5     Quaternary structure
    
3.    Protein Denaturation
    
4.    Conditions Affecting Protein Structure
    
5.    Fish Proteins
    5.1    Sarcoplasmic proteins
    5.2    Myofbrillar protein
    5.3    Stroma proteins
    5.4    Functional properties of fish proteins
    
References
    
Further reading

1.       Introduction

2.    Lipid Storage in Fish
    
3.      Factors Influencing Nature of Lipids in Fish
    
4.    Composition of Fish Oils
    4.1    Nature and composition of fatty acids
    4.2     Triacyl glycerols
    4.3     Phospholipids
    4.4     Diacyl glycerol ethers
    4.5     Wax esters
    4.6     Hydrocarbons
    4.7     Sterols
    
5.    Autoxidation of Fish Lipids
        
    5.1    Mechanism of autoxidation
        
    5.2     Factors influencing lipid autoxidation
        
    5.3     Control and prevention of autoxidation
    
6.    Lipid Autolysis
    
7.    Rancidity Problem in Fish
    7.1     Indices of oxidative rancidity
    
References

1.    Introduction
    
2.    Indian Initiatives in Tuna Fishery
    
3.    Tuna Harvesting Techniques
    3.1    Locating tuna
    3.2    Fishing gear and machinery
    3.3    Post harvest catch handling and storage techniques
    
4.    Post Harvest Handling Techniques for the Production of Sashimi Quality Tuna
        
    4.1    Killing and cleaning tools
    4.2    The ten easy steps to sashimi quality tuna
    
Acknowledgements
    
References

1.    Introduction
    
2.     Code of Conduct for Responsible Fisheries
    
3.     Technologies for Responsible Fishing
    3.1     Technology for bycatch reduction in trawl fisheries
    3.2     Technology for by catch reduction in purse seine fisheries
    3.3     Technology for by catch reduction in gillnet fisheries
    3.4     Technology for by catch reduction in hook and line fisheries
    3.5     Technology for by catch reduction in trap fisheries
    
4.     Environment-Friendly Fishing Gears
    4.1     Reducing bottom impact of towed gears
    4.2     Semi-pelagic trawl system
    4.3     Benthic release panels
    4.4     Remote controlled otter boards (smart trawling)
    4.5     Ground gear modifications
    4.6     Otter boards bridles and sweeps
    
5.     Energy Conservation in Fishing
    5.1     Fishing gear and methods
    5.2     Vessel technology
    5.3    Engines
    5.4    Reduction gear, propeller and nozzle
    5.5     Sail-assisted propulsion
    5.6     Adoption of advanced technology
    5.7    Conservation, management and enhancement of fishery resources
    
6.     Conclusion
    
References

1.    Introduction

2.    Materials for Boat Construction

3.    Engines and Propellers

4.    Fuel Saving

5.    Development of Computer Aided Designing (CAD)

6.    Type and Size of Boats
    
    6.1    Trawlers
    6.2    Otter trawlers
    6.3    Side trawlers
    6.4    Stern trawlers
    6.5    Freezer trawlers
    6.6    Purse seiners
    6.7    Long liners
    
7.    Fishing Equipment
    
    7.1    Echo sounders and sonars
    7.2    Global positioning system (GPS)
    
8.    Global Maritime Distress and Safety System (GMDSS)
    
    8.1    Advantages of the GMDSS over the current system
    8.2    Implementation of the GMDSS requirements
    8.3    The main types of equipment used in GMDSS
    
9.    Distress Alert Transmitters (DAT)
    
10.    Automatic Identification System (AIS)
    
11.    Handling Equipments
    
    11.1    Advances in deck machinery
    11.2    Automated long line system
    11.3    Automated squid jigging machines
    11.4    Net haulers
    11.5    Net drums
    11.6    Gantries
    11.7    Stern ramp
    
12.    Side Thruster
    
13.    Satellites and Remote Sensing
    
14.    Vessel Monitoring System (VMS)
    
References

I. Dairy Farm Equipments

A. First Aid
1. Abscess
What to Do

    ·    Abscesses should be examined by a veterinarian as soon as possible and within 24 hours.
 
    ·    Fluid may normally drain from the site of an abscess. An abscess does not drain through the tube, but rather around the latex tubing. Therefore, it is important for you to clean the area around the drain twice daily with warm water.

    ·    Apply a hot compress to the affected site at least two times daily for 3 to 5 days after the animal leaves the hospital. Wet a clean washcloth with very warm water and place it directly over the affected site, and then apply gentle pressure ideally for 5 to 10 minutes.

General Signs of Healthy and Ill Animals

Health

It is a state of freedom from disease. It may also be stated as a condition of an animal in which all the body organs are normal and are functioning to their optimum capacity in relation to animal’s age, sex, work, and production with optimum pulse, temperature and respiration rates appropriate to the species, sex and environment.

Disease

Disease may be any deterioration from normal health or normal functioning of any or all the tissues or organs of animal body. Thus, it shuns animal to perform its normal physiological functions though the nutritional and environmental parameters are maintained normal.

Milk

Importance

Milk contains approximately 86% water, 4.7% sugar (lactose), 4.1% fat, 4.2% protein and 1% minerals. It supports the growth of micro-organisms and thus is prone to contamination. The purpose of milking a dairy cow is to obtain milk that is fit for human consumption. Milk from the udder of a healthy cow contains very few bacteria and to ensure that it remains fresh for long it should be handled under conditions of good hygiene. Unclean milk can be a source of disease to the consumer, rejected at the market and so is a loss to the farmer, does not keep for long and is not good for processing.

Breeding of Heifers

    ·    Regardless of age, puberty is reached when a heifer weighs approximately 40% of her mature body weight.
 
    ·    Breeding however, is recommended when a heifer has reached 60% of her expected mature body weight. This is normally achieved when the heifer is 14 to 16 months old.
 
    ·    Smaller breeds may be bred one or two months earlier than large breeds because they mature faster.
 
    ·    Heifers in good condition and gaining weight at breeding time generally show more definite signs of estrus and have improved conception rates over heifers in poor condition and/or losing weight.
 
    ·    Over-conditioned or fat heifers have been reported to require more services per conception than heifers of normal size and weight.

Management of Calf

Management before birth

    ·    As calf management begins before birth, a few days before the calf is born, the pregnant cow is transferred to a maternity paddock, which should be near the homestead (for closer observation), well watered and free from physical objects.
 
    ·    The signs of imminent parturition (calving) include filling of udder with milk and is turgid, vulva swollen with a string of mucus hanging from vagina.
 
    ·    Insemination records can also be used to estimate the expected calving date.

Introduction

The dairy farmers mostly keep cows (indigenous and crossbred) along with few buffaloes for milk production. However, the genetic potential of the dairy animals is exploited fully, when they are fed with well balanced ration. Further, as feed cost is around 75% of the total cost of production, the success of the dairy farming depends not only on the quality of the ration, but also on the economy of the ration. Therefore, knowledge on the feeds and feeding of dairy animals is highly essential.

What is Feed?

Feed may be defined as supplementation of nutrients for development, maintenance and operation of day to day activities by animals.

An efficient management of animals will be incomplete without a well planned and adequate housing of animals. Improper planning of animal housing leads to additional labor charges. The housing should have proper sanitation, durability, arrangements for the production of clean milk under convenient and economic conditions.

a) General Housing Requirements

Dairy animals will be more efficient in the production of milk and in reproduction if they are protected from extreme heat, and particularly from direct sunshine. This can be achieved through provision of shade in tropical and subtropical climates. If dairy animals are confined, the area should be free of mud and manure in order to reduce hoof infection to a minimum. Concrete floors or pavements are ideal where the area per animal is limited. However, where ample space is available, an earth yard, properly sloped for good drainage is adequate.

A) Selection of Dairy Cattle

Proper selection is the first and the most important step to be adopted in dairying. Records are the basis of selection and hence proper identification of animals and record keeping is essential. Cross-breed animals with exotic inheritance of about 50 percent are preferable.
 
Bringing animals from different agro-climatic conditions causes problems due to non-adjustment in many cases. In case, purchase becomes absolutely essential it should be from similar environmental conditions as far as possible.

General selection procedures for dairy breeds

Selecting a calf in calf show, a cow in cattle show by judging is an art. A dairy farmer should build up his own herd by breeding his own herd. Following guidelines will be useful for selection of a dairy cow.

Interest Rate : Provisional Interest rate @ 14.50% p.a. has been taken for evaluation of the project report. However, the sanctioning authority may consider the exact rate of interest applicable, on the date of sanction. Development of farm should be completed within 3 months from first disbursement.
 
Repayment of loan : A five-year repayment programme has been drawn with six months moratorium period, the installments will be monthly starting from 6th month onwards. The applicant has to make tie-up with the local MPCS and the repayment should be routed through the MPCS.

Interest Rate: Provisional Interest rate @ 15.75% p.a. has been taken for evaluation of the project report. However, the exact interest rate will be decided by the sanctioning authority on the date of sanction.

Disbursement of loan: Funds for fodder cultivation and civil construction should be disbursed first. Development of sheds and fodder plots should be completed within 3 months from first disbursement. Then disbursement of 1^st Batch cow (10 animals) will be done. Last disbursement for 2^nd Batch cows (10 animals) should be done after 5-6 months of purchase of 1^st batch cows.

Insurance: The animals and other assets (sheds, equipment) must be insured. Wherever necessary, Risk / Mortality fund may be considered in lieu of dairy insurance.

Assumptions

    ·    Freshly calved animals in 1st or 2nd lactation are purchased in two batches of five animals each at an interval of 5 to 6 months.

    ·    Cost of rearing calves not considered as it will be nullified by their sale value or retention value.

    ·    Fodder cultivation considered in two acres and working capital for one crop / season considered. Two crops considered per year.
 
    ·    Manure is utilized for fodder cultivation.

Model Project for Setting Up 10 & 20 Cow Dairy Farm (Indicative)

    ·    The models are only indicative and in no way designed to provide exact economics. Following guidelines may be used by the interested persons to work out the details of their project, depending upon the local market and conditions.

    ·    An interactive module considering the land availability for fodder cultivation, willingness to opt for silage bunkers, type of chaff cutter (manual or machine operated), milking machine, mister set, etc. is under preparation.

    ·    The proposed interactive module would require preference for set of inputs and intended herd size and accordingly generate output outlining the estimated investment, cost and return.

Introduction

Dairy is vital to the economics of many developing countries. Animals are a source of food, more specifically protein for human diets, income, employment and possibly foreign exchange. For low income producers, dairy can serve as a store of wealth; provide draught power and organic fertilizer for crop production and a means of transport. Consumption of dairy and dairy products in developing countries, though starting from a low base, is growing rapidly. Dairying has become an important secondary source of income for millions of rural families and has assumed a most important role in providing employment and income generating opportunity. Indian Dairying is unique in more than one ways. It ranks first with its 199.1 million cattle & 105.3 million buffaloes accounting for about 51 percent of Asia’s and about 19 per cent of world’s bovine population. It also ranks first in milk production with a production of 121.8 million tones in 2010-11 and the demand is expected to be 180 million tones by 2020. To achieve this demand annual growth rate in milk production has to be increased from the present 2.5 % to 5%. Thus, there is a tremendous scope/potential for increasing the milk production through profitable dairy farming. Besides milk, the manure from animals provides a good source of organic matter for improving soil fertility and crop yields.

Dairy rearing is central to livelihoods and survival of millions of people of India. It is estimated that approximately 100 million people derive their live hood from dairy rearing as primary or secondary source of income. Dairy related activities help to maintain regular in flow of income for these households. Small farmers in India generate nearly half of their income from dairy and the value of cattle represents a significant part of their wealth, so the death of cattle poses a significant risk and affects farmers’ net worth and income.

a. Type of risks to dairy based livelihoods

Large animal’s are expensive and thus carry higher risk exposure. Dairy losses due to the disease, accident, theft, natural calamity can cause significant losses to these household. Sometimes owners are forced to sell their animals due to loss due to incurable disease/ disorder/ fodder and water scarcity and they are unable to rebuild their stock. Many times animal losses force them into poverty trap from where they are unable to recover.

Risks faced by dairy owner’s dairy dependent livelihoods can be classified into two broad categories

    a.    General Principles and practices
    b.    Analyzing project appraisals and reports
    c.    Capital Expenditure decisions, reinvestment and payback
    d.    Assessing project profits.

a. Financing the dairy enterprise

Dairy rearing provides triple benefits of income, employment and nutritional security to the society and is important source of subsidiary income to small/marginal farmers and agricultural laborers. Finance is a prerequisite and of paramount importance for setting up of a dairy enterprise whether a dairy farming unit for milk production, sheep or goat unit/piggery unit, dairy/poultry processing unit etc. Decisions about credit are often most important judgments that people in the agricultural industry must make. These decisions often determine whether individuals operating in input, production, processing, and services based dairy enterprise would succeed in making profit.

The Feasibility study of dairy project cover capital investment on land, building, infrastructure, working capital, manufacturing and marketing cost, and financial projections to work out its viability. Once viability is established, a detailed project report should include the following ten steps for project planning and implementation:

First Step: This step involves appointing a consultant to plan the project in relation to the design the dairy plant, proposed market and select an architect and a structural consultant. Prepare tender documents for civil works and plant equipment. Study the demand-supply of target products through a market survey to formulate the suitable product mix in terms of volume and range. e.g. study of various dairy products e.g. Khoa, ghee, Ice cream. The capacity of the plant and the provision of various facilities would be determined by the products demand.

According to a recent study, over 94% of new businesses fail during first year of operation. Lack of funding turns to be one of the common reasons. Money is the bloodline of any business. The long painstaking yet exciting journey from the idea generation to revenue generating business needs a fuel named capital. That’s why, at almost every stage of the business, entrepreneurs find themselves asking – How do I finance my startup?

Now, when an entrepreneur require funding depends largely on the nature and type of the business. Here is a comprehensive list of funding options for startups that will help the entrepreneur to raise capital for business.

1. Technical Feasibility of Dairy Unit

This includes following information such as
 
    1.    Availability of good quality animals in nearby dairy market,
 
    2.    Availability of good grazing grounds and lands,
 
    3.    Availability of green/dry fodder,
 
    4.    Availability of concentrate feed, medicines etc.
 
    5.    Further availability of veterinary aid, dairy breeding (AI) centre, milk collection and marketing centre are also important.

    6.    Nearness of the selected area to veterinary/breeding/milk collection centre and the financing bank’s branch.

    7.    Capability of the owner and employees such as technical knowledge and skill.

Any farmer/Entrepreneur who wishes to avail bank loan for starting or expanding his dairy enterprise should apply for loan to the nearest branch of a commercial bank, regional rural bank or co-operative bank in their area in the prescribed application form which is available in the branches of financing banks.

Preparing Projects for Bank Appraisal

    1.    The entrepreneur can prepare the project or Scheme report after consulting local technical persons of State Animal Husbandry Department, DRDA, Dairy Co-operative Society / Union / Federation / commercial dairy farmers.
 
    2.    The project report should have mention about practical training and experience in dairy farming. So in order to meet this requirement the inexperienced entrepreneurs can visit progressive dairy farms and government / military / agricultural university dairy farms in the vicinity to have first hand information about the enterprise. Nowadays several online portals (www.aaqaa.com.) also provide useful guidance and information on setting up dairy based enterprise.

    1.    Technical support
    2.    Financial support

1. Technical support

A. Institutes for Professional skills in dairy based enterprises:

Several institutions offer training programmes in dairy based enterprises:

I. Society for Innovation & Entrepreneurship in Dairying (SINED)

Society for Innovation & Entrepreneurship in Dairying (SINED) is registered under society regulation act 1860, hosted by National Dairy Research Institute, Karnal for promotion of entrepreneurship in dairying. The major activity of the society is to administer a Technology Business Incubator which provides support for technology based entrepreneurship in Dairying.

Introduction
Demand of dairy products is on the rise in India. India‘s demand forecast for milk and milk products is more than the current supply of these products. To meet this demand entrepreneurship initiatives are need of the hour. Further, younger generations of India are more interested in commercial dairy farming rather than subsistence based farming. Therefore, scientific as well as commercial dairy entrepreneurial training to farmers about advanced technology used in breeding, feeding, housing and healthcare is essential.

a. Barriers for Entrepreneurship in dairy

An average dairy entrepreneur faces several barriers to start a new enterprise. Some of them are as under

    1.    Lack of financial support: A major stumbling block for many dairy farmers to expand production or diversify into new high value enterprises is lack of access to finance. Farmers who are starting new enterprises often face difficulty raising investment capital.

1. General

In this the nature of objectives of the enterprise i.e. setting up a dairy farm, details of proposed investments, specification of the project area, name of the financing bank branch, status of beneficiary: (Individual/Partnership/Company/Corporation/Co-operative Society / Others) details of borrowers profile in terms of capability, experience, financial soundness, technical / other special qualifications are mentioned.

2. Technical Aspects

    a)    Location, Land and Land Development: This involves the site details of the proposed project. The total land area and its cost. Also, particulars of land development such as fencing, boundary wall, gates are mentioned in it. Thus, site map is also mentioned in this subheading.

    b)    Civil Structures: Several structures like sheds, milking room, store room, quarters for dairy farm manager / labourers are also to be constructed. So, their measurements as well as approximate costs need to be mentioned.

The total milk production in the country for the year 2013-14 has been estimated at 126 million metric tonnes and the demand is expected to be 180 million tonnes by 2020. To achieve this demand annual growth rate in milk production has to be increased from the present 2.5 % to 5%. Thus, there is a tremendous scope/potential for increasing the milk production through profitable dairy farming.

a. Requirements of project report for setting up dairy units

Project report can be prepared by a beneficiary after consulting local technical persons of State Animal Husbandry Department, DRDA, Dairy Co-operative Society / Union / Federation / commercial dairy farmers.

a. Dairy entrepreneurship

A dairy entrepreneur is a person who undertakes dairy based activities such as rearing of milch animals, production of milk, processing of milk, manufacture of milk products and marketing of milk and milk products and also involved in buying and selling of other inputs of dairy business. He finds ways and means to create and develop a profitable dairy business. Dairy entrepreneurs see their farming as a business and as a means of earning profits. So they are willing to take calculated risks to make profits and to grow their businesses. They are also motivated to improve dairy production through mechanization and application of technologies in the field of dairy and allied enterprises.

Twenty first century is the century of entrepreneurship and every individual can be an agent for innovation and change. Entrepreneurship is regarded as one of the most crucial factors in the economic development of every region of the country. It widens the horizons of economic development even in the socially and industrially backward regions. Dynamic entrepreneurs are considered to be the agent of change in a society. Entrepreneurs play a very important role in generating new employment and setting up new business. The problem of poverty, inequality and regional imbalances can be tackled with the development of entrepreneurship. However, in all economic development activities more and more focus is being centered on entrepreneurship of the people. Entrepreneur has been now recognized as a concept, not only for starting industries but also in the development of dairy enterprise. In India, it is believed that tremendous latent entrepreneurial talent exists which, if properly harnessed, could help in solving many of the serious problems facing the country.

Cheese is a milk product of ancient origin and portrays the ethos of civilization and its cultural evolution. Cheese is one of the oldest foods of mankind. It is commonly believed that cheese evolved in the Fertile Crescent between the rivers Tigris and Euphrates in Iraq some 8000 years ago. The so-called Agricultural Revolution occurred here with the domestication of plants and animals.

It seems that the cheese originated accidentally as a result of the activities of nomadic tribes. Since animal skin bags were a convenient way of storing liquids for nomadic people, these were used for storing surplus milk. Fermentation of the milk sugars in the warm climate prevailing would cause the milk to curdle in the bags. The swaying animals would have broken up the acid curd during journeys, to produce curds and whey. The whey provided a refreshing drink on hot journeys, while the curds, preserved by the acid of fermentation and a handful of salt, became a source of high protein food supplementing the meager meat supply.

This activity gave rise to the assumption that cheese was evolved from fermented milks. It is perhaps more probable that the crude fermentations progressed in two ways. In one direction towards the production of liquid fermented milks such as dahi, yoghurt, laban, koumis and Kefir and in the other direction through the drainage of whey through a cloth or perforated bowls, to leave solid curds which when salted became cheese.

It was a prominent article of the Greek and Roman diet as much as 2500 years ago. It is referred to in the Old Testament several times.

The financial and commercial book keeping that is generally practiced by dairies, the main purpose of which is to ascertain the total results of the business during a given period, does not answer the question whether the costs of processing of milk products and of the various operations involved in manufacturing, are reasonable. For this purpose, dairy plants have to keep detailed records of the expenditure incurred on different components and processes, for planning of production and controlling of costs. In large multi-product dairy plants, production is generally characterized by mixed and joint production and the different operating operations are interrelated. Thus, it becomes difficult to draw a distinction and allocate and apportion the consumption of various services and utilities to arrive at the cost of different operations of various products.
The Bureau of Indian Standards has developed three different sets of records on dairy accounts which may be used to record different information for cost and quality control. These records are:

DAIRY BUSINESS

Most ambitious young men at some time or another are likely to develop an interest in going into business for themselves. This is prompted not only by the thought that a person owning his own business is more independent but also by the hope of increasing personal income. However, when these same young men look about them and see the general existence of “big business” in practically all lines of endeavour, they often lose courage and decide to remain as workers with some company where they can enjoy a certain degree of security. 
The general condition is an important factor in determining the success of new business enterprises. Similarly, innovations like the creation of new products or the development of new methods of merchandising often gives rise to opportunities for a new business enterprise. The introduction of “Softy” ice cream and other soft-served frozen products made it possible for several hundred small businesses to get established in our country. The advent of single- service paper container was the spark that started several milk-plant operations which later grew into companies of considerable size. Ironically, the paper milk container also spelled the doom for many older independent plants that could not or did not adjust soon enough to this new way of packaging. The chocolate-coated ice-cream bar idea started a number of new enterprises which grew from small companies going to concerns of considerable size. Vending machines made it possible for many small companies to get started selling milk, ice cream, candy and lassi etc. 

Air pollution is the introduction of chemicals, particulate matter, or biological materials into the atmosphere that cause harm or discomfort to humans or other living organisms, or cause damage to the natural environment. The concern to determine the importance of the airflow as a possible source of contamination in dairy and food industry is growing, because the airborne dust particles can introduce foreign matter including microbial contaminants into the dairy products. Maintenance of air quality in a dairy factory plays an important role and is very much monitored by controlling the temperature, humidity and particle concentration. Air quality control is required for the comfort and safety of employees. To reduce the possibility of contamination in products it is necessary to impose additional controls on air quality. Airborne contamination can be controlled by air filtration.

Noise has become a very important “stress factor” in the environment of man especially with regard to health. However, not much attention is being paid towards its elimination or control in dairy plants. The harmful effects of noise(s) in the workplace as an occupational hazard is really a cause of great concern. Apart from reducing the work efficiency, in the long run it causes serious auditory and non-auditory effects on the worker. Thus, it becomes imperative to set legal standards in workplaces to be monitored constantly to avoid or reduce the health hazards of the workers.

Noise and Noise Pollution

Noise is often defined as “Unwanted Sound” or “Undesirable Sound”. The “Noise Pollution” has been coined to signify the vast cacophony of sounds that are being produced in the modern life, leading to health hazards.

Milk processing plants involve processing of raw milk into products like market milk, cheese, butter, ice cream, condensed milk, dried milks and traditional dairy products. The by-products processing includes buttermilk, whey and its derivatives. Dairy effluents contain dissolved sugar, protein, fat and minerals. Spills and leaks of products or by-products, residual milk or milk products in piping and equipment before cleaning, wash solutions from equipment and floors, condensate from evaporation processes and cheese trimmings are some of the sources of dairy effluents in a dairy plant. The key parameters are the biological oxygen demand (BOD), chemical oxygen demand (COD), total suspended solids, total dissolved solids etc. Common dairy waste techniques include grease traps, oil water separators for separation of floatable solids, equalization tanks. Biological treatment consists of aerobic and anaerobic process.

Cleaning and sanitizing of dairy plants is essential for providing safe milk products to the consumers as well as for ensuring the good shelf life of these products. It ensures cleanliness, hygiene of the equipments and surroundings and also ensures that the products meet the safety standards. Cleaning of dairy plant consists of broadly of removing the soil from the surface of the equipment by dissolving or suspending the soil in a warm solution of suitable cleaning agents. In the dairy industry, the soil is primarily milk and milk product residues which may be more or less modified by processing treatment. 
Milk and milk product residues are complex mixtures of milk sugar, fat, proteins and mineral salts. Some of these solids are present in emulsion, some are in a colloidal state, and others are in true solution. When milk products are heated in vats or pumped through sanitary pipe lines or over coolers, the metal or glass surfaces become coated with milk remains, which, if allowed to dry, may be difficult to remove.

Water Requirements

Dairy plant requires large quantities of water on a daily basis for processing and cleaning purposes. Normally the specific water consumption ranges from 1000-5000 litres per 1000 litres of milk processed. The actual requirement can vary between dairies and is a function of 
    a)    Manufacturing process or manufacturing profile.
    b)    Auxiliary processes such as steam generation, design of the refrigeration processes and extent of social services.
    c)    Multiple use/reuse.
Water is a very valuable basic natural resource  and needs careful consumption. The water supply system in a dairy plant should be designed in such a way that consumption for each manufacturing department and auxiliary processes can be determined. This makes it possible to influence water consumption directly, and major losses can be determined very rapidly.

The compliance with hygienic and aesthetic standards in the dairy factory is, in the final analysis, dependent on the human element. Each employee, from top management to the most junior operative, has his role in the factory sanitation programme and carelessness at any stage may cause quality deterioration of products or endanger the health of consumers. Legal action against the dairy may also result from neglect of hygiene. Personnel hygiene refers to the personal cleanliness and related habits of the workers. Milkborne infections frequently originate from food contaminated by workers through their hands, breath, hair, perspiration, pimples, infected wounds, coughs, and sneezes. Transfer of even traces of human and animal excreta by the workers is a potential source of pathogenic microorganisms. Foodborne illness is known to originate from workers who were ill and practiced unsanitary food handling methods or poor personal hygiene. Even the healthy worker, who does not exhibit the symptoms of the disease, may harbour food poisoning bacteria in the respiratory or intestinal tract. It is always desirable, as a matter of practice, to look at different parts of the human body in terms of potential sources of bacterial contamination. Provisions regarding personal hygiene of employees are contained in all legislation dealing with milk treatment.

Food Hygiene is a scientific discipline describing handling, preparation, and storage of food in ways that prevent foodborne illness. This includes a number of routines that should be followed to avoid potentially severe health hazards. Food can transmit disease from person to person as well as serve as a growth medium for bacteria that can cause food poisoning. Since food hygiene has a direct effect on the health of individuals patronizing the catering facility, it is obligatory on the part of the management to lay down definite guidelines for maintaining hygienic conditions and ensuring their proper implementation. Cleanliness should be the basis of all food hygiene programmes and should be aimed at food protection as well as improving and maintaining the quality of food. 

The primary objective of dairy plant hygiene is to ensure the consistent daily turn-out of safe and clean products which comply with pure-food and public health laws. A secondary and commercially important aim is to preserve the keeping quality of dairy products and so enhance consumer confidence in them. An integral part of a dairy is the quality control laboratory. Continuous testing is necessary for many purposes, including equipment hygiene. Bacteriological standards of dairy products can be maintained only if the raw product is of good bacteriological quality and is protected against contamination from the equipment with which it comes in contact during all stages of processing. 
Many factors may influence the maintenance of dairy equipment in a hygienic condition; the most important are the dairy buildings, the materials and construction of the equipment, personnel, water supply, cleaning procedures, and laboratory control. It is quite impossible to place these points in order of importance, efficient control of dairy plant hygiene being dependent on proper attention to all factors.