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Dairy industry has long dealt with issues of food pathogens and inadvertent adulteration; it is time to review the plant systems with a new perspective. Each plant has its own handling protocols, physical lay-out and employee policies. Milk and other materials entering the facilities, till the distribution of the finished product needs special attention.
 
I. INCOMING MATERIALS

In general, start by considering the milk, food ingredients, packaging, chemicals and other materials that come into plant facility and warehouses, and ensure that these product streams are secure, and that materials are stored in asecure place.

The machine parts, which have relative motion, rub against each other. The rubbing surfaces are never perfectly smooth, even when they are highly polished. If they are observed under a microscope, one sees small depressions and elevations which get interlocked when the machine parts are under pressure, and give rise to a resisting force called frictional force. Due to friction, the parts get worn out and become useless. Friction produces heat, which, in this case, represents loss of work. To reduce this wear and loss of power caused by friction, certain foreign substances are introduced between the rubbing surfaces which keep them apart. These substances are called lubricants; and lubrication is the science of reducing friction by the application of a suitable substance between the rubbing surfaces of bodies having relative motion.

A broader definition of a tool is an entity used to interface between two or more domains that facilitates more effective action of one domain upon the other. The most basic tools are simple machines. For example, a crowbar simply functions as a lever. The further out from the pivot point, the more force is transmitted along the lever. A hammer typically interfaces between the operator’s hand and the nail the operator wishes to strike.
A telephone is a communication tool that interfaces between two people engaged in conversation at one level. And between each user and the communication network at another. It is in the domain of media and communications technology that a counterintuitive aspect of our relationships with our tools first began to gain popular recognition.
Marshall McLuhan famously said “We shape our tools. And then our tools shape us.” McLuhan was referring to the fact that our social practices co-evolve with our use of new tools and the refinements we make to existing tools.

Concept of Inventory

‘Inventory’ may be defined as ‘usable but idle resource’. If resource is some physical and tangible object such as materials, then it is generally termed as stock. Thus stock or inventory are synonymous terms though inventory has wider implications. Broadly speaking, the problem of inventory management is one of maintaining, for a given financial investment, an adequate supply of something to meet an expected demand pattern. This could be raw materials work in progress finished products or the spares and other indirect materials. Inventory can be one of the indicators of the management effectiveness on the materials management front. Inventory turnover ratio (annual demand/average inventory) is an index of business performance. A soundly managed organization will have higher inventory turnover ratio and vice-versa. Inventory management deals with the determination of optimal policies and procedures for procurement of commodities. Since it is quite difficult to imagine a real work situation in which the required material will be made available at the point of use instantaneously, hence maintaining, inventories becomes almost necessary. Thus inventories could be visualized as ‘necessary evil’.

Since time immemorial when man used primitive tools and machines to carry his loads, to draw his water, to till his land and to fabricate his building materials, he has been faced with the prospect of maintaining these assets until such time as he considered their useful life to be ended. Maintenance is very important to extend the useful life of an asset. Maintenance is usually viewed only as a repair function. It is, however, “a combination of any actions carried out to retain an item in, or restore it to, an acceptance condition”. In fact maintenance keeps or ensures that the entire production system is kept reliable, productive and efficient. All departments of a production system may have been designed beautifully without giving due consideration to maintenance management. The end result is obvious. Organizations like the National Productivity Council and others are playing a vital role in propagating the importance of Maintenance Management of all assets of the organization. In fact, all organizations must be having some assets, and hence the need for proper maintenance and ‘physical assets management’ which is synonymous with the word ‘Tero-technology’.

There are specific hazards associated with equipment, operation or a particular section. Such possible hazards and their preventive measures are discussed below.
I. Milk Reception Dock
    1.    Where the top of a vat, into which a 40 litre can of milk is to be dumped, is higher than the milk can, two men should lift and empty the can.
    2.    Where steam jet method of can washing is used, to avoid burning, employees would be furnished with protective equipment, including rubber boots and long aprons
    3.    Cans should be stacked in areas away from frequently used passage ways
    4.    Cans should not be stacked so high that they may fall and injure someone

Apart from the job content and specialization, the conditions or the atmosphere in which employees work is critical to their productivity. Work environment includes the tools and equipment provided to perform the job, the atmosphere at the work place, worker motivation etc.

Tools and Equipments

The quality of tools and equipment provided to a worker has a profound effect on the worker’s contribution to his job. A poorly designed tool can cause excessive physical burden on the worker and may result in fatigue. A faulty computer monitor can cause severe eyestrain, which might affect productivity in an office environment. Hence, tools and equipment should be appropriate for the production task. The design should consider ergonomic factors like grasping pressure, size, weight, ease of use etc. when designed properly, tools enable users to work efficiently, resulting in higher productivity. The equipment installed should be able to meet the capacity requirements of the job, have safety features and be easy to use. The use of the right tools and equipment can improve productivity in an organization substantially.

Employee motivation and job enrichment are described as two management techniques used to improve human behaviour and attitude towards work, with a view to utilize available human resources more efficiently and thus make man-management more effective. Just as the employee has certain wants that the organization is expected to satisfy, the organization too expects certain types of behaviour usually termed as ‘Direction’ or ‘Motivation’. Obviously this managerial function is not so easy, as it involves many problems, and it is these problems and their possible solutions that one is concerned.
Job enrichment is also a motivational problem created by the alienation of employees from their work, or by lack of their interest in their work. Here the problem is how to make the work more interesting, purposeful and acceptable to employees so that they may perform it more enthusiastically and with a greater sense of responsibility. Like motivation this is also a problem of human behaviour and work attitude. In fact both employee motivation and job enrichment are the problems which every supervisor and manager has to face while working and making their subordinates work.

TRANSFER

A transfer is a change in job assignment. It may involve a promotion or demotion or no change at all in responsibility and status. It is a change in assignment in which the employee moves to another job at approximately the same level of responsibility, the same skill, the level of pay. Transfer is to be distinguished from promotion and demotion which imply an ascending or descending change respectively, in the hierarchy of positions. A transfer may be either temporary or permanent, depending upon the need, and may occur within a department, between departments and divisions, or between plants or officers within a company/organization.

Whatever may be the nature and strength of resistance to the performance appraisal, management cannot relinquish this practice. Without employee appraisal, salary increases, reassignments or promotions cannot be administered rationally. Each of these areas has its specific problems and one of the solutions of modern times has been offered by an unusually promising frame work offered by Peter Drucker concept of Management by Objectives (MBO).
MBO calls on the subordinate to set his short-term performance goals in consultation with his superior. Goals explicitly state the actions which the employee will follow. Instead of being appraised in a traditional way by his superior, the subordinate appraises his own performance by evaluating it vis-à-vis the goals. Before establishing a goal, the individual studies his job, assesses his potentialities, and formulates some specific plans to reach the goal. The supervisor is not the evaluator, but directs the goal-setting process to ensure that it matches the objectives of the organization.

What is Performance Appraisal?

Performance Appraisal (PA) is the process through which an individual employee’s behaviour and accomplishments for a fixed time period are measured and evaluated. The major purpose of measuring and evaluating is to assess the worth or value of an employee. Performance appraisal is a systematic and objective way of judging the relative worth or ability of an employee in performing his task. Performance appraisal helps to identify those who are performing their assigned tasks well and those who are not and the reasons for such performance.

Training is a major manpower management function. No organization can afford not to train its employees, regardless of his previous education, training, and experience. He has to be introduced into the work environment of his new employer inducted and taught to perform his assigned tasks in a new milieu. Moreover, changing technology, increasing automation in offices and factories and in almost all institutions is bringing about redesigned or altered jobs. People are constantly being “trained” and retrained by the way their superiors and other employees associate them with work. 
Training is a part of management development and also a form of organizational development. The most effective managers are those who can best develop the human resources of an organization for the purpose of achieving organizational goals and objectives. If the employees perceive training as a means to achieve their personal goals at work, they will welcome such opportunities. Some essentials about training may be borne in mind and they are:

RECRUITMENT 
Recruitment is the process of identifying the prospective employees, stimulating and encouraging them to apply for a particular job or jobs in an organization. It is a positive action as it involves inviting people to apply. The purpose is to have an inventory of eligible persons from amongst whom proper selection of the most suitable person can be made.

The Process of Recruitment
Before thinking of inviting people to apply for a job one has to decide what types of persons are to be invited and what their characteristics should be. This calls for fixing the ‘job specifications’ which may also be called ‘man specifications’. Job specifications are based on job description which is dependent upon the nature and requirements of a job. 

Thus, job specification will be different for each job. The various elements of job specification are:

Importance and Value of Human Resources

The employees are the human resources of an organization which are crucial for its functioning. The acquisition of human resources and their maintenance involves costs. Manpower costs include costs of research and designing of manpower programmes that is man-power planning, work study and designing of personnel policies etc. The costs of commissioning of man power, that is, costs of recruitment, induction, placement and training etc. The cost of maintenance of these resources is a very significant component of the total costs of an organization. Maintenance costs include wages and salaries, welfare and medical benefits, PF, gratuity and other retiring benefits etc. These costs form a substantial part of the total costs of an organization. In the last 30 years the treatment of manpower costs has been recognized as a separate division in accounting practices. The other assets like machinery, buildings etc come under depreciation. In contrast, human assets are the employees at all levels, as they grow in age and experience, add to their productivity and capacity to earn for the organization and become more valuable.

Traditionally, Labour Laws have a protective function consisting of established standards both to protect workers in their workplace and to provide them a basic minimum level of living conditions. Alongwith this function, there also existed in most systems, a legal framework for the regulation of industrial relations between employers and workers. These functions had their impact on problems of development. The emphasis was more on labour legislation for its own sake, development being a separate proposition. This mutual lack of concern was perhaps due to historical factors. The most important aspect is the fact that in developed countries of the Western world, labour legislation followed the emergence of industrialization and in response to a demand for economic and social betterment of the workers, whereas in developing countries the emergence of labour laws preceded industrial growth.

In economics and business, specifically cost accounting, the break-even-point (BEP) is the point at which cost or expenses and revenue are equal: there is no net loss or gain, and one has “broken even”. A profit or a loss has not been made, although opportunity costs have been paid, and capital has received the risk-adjusted, expected return.
For example, if a business sells less than 1000 liters of milk each day, it will make a loss, if it sells more, it will be a profit. With this information, the business managers will then need to see if they expect to be able to process and sell 1000 liters of milk per day.

SOURCES OF LOSSES
In most of the cases of excessive fat or product loss, a combination of several factors rather than any single factor are responsible.
 
Inaccuracy in weighing: Receiving room scales should be checked regularly with a set of weights. The check should be made immediately before weighing operations begin. Improper drainage of the weighbowl will permit a carry over into the next batch dumped, resulting in incorrect weighing. Errors in weight in bulk handling methods may be caused also by improper leveling of the tank, incorrect calibration of the measuring rod, or carelessness on the part of the person taking the measurement.
 
Inaccuracy in sampling: Failure to collect representative samples may sometime cause sizeable losses. Milk should be properly agitated before taking samples. The composite sample should be preserved and refrigerated and should be protected from mould growth.

Definition
Production and operations management is the process of conversion of inputs into outputs, using physical resources, so as to provide the desired utility/utilities —of form, place, possession or state or a combination thereof—to the customer while meeting the other organizational objectives of effectiveness, efficiency and adaptability. It distinguishes itself from the other functions such as personnel, marketing etc. by its primary concern for ‘conversion by using physical resources’. Figure 1.1 describes a generalized concept of production system. It takes resource inputs and processes them to produce useful outputs in the form of goods or services.

    1.    Laminar flow hood works on the principle of 
        a)    High-efficiency particulate air filter
        b)    High-energy particulate air filter
        c)     High-efficiency pressure air filter
        d)     None
    2.    Most of the organisms are killed
        a)    121°C for 5 min.    b)    15lb/in²
        c)     a & b    d)     None
    3.    Autoclaving is not recommended for
        a)    Oils    b)    Powders
        c)     Sensitive fluids    d)     All

    1.    Life blood of food companies are
        a)    Existing products    b)    New Products
        c)     New packaging material    d)     Food technologists
    2.    New Products are developed to meet
        a)    Health & Nutritional requirements
        b)    Environmental & Social requirements
        c)     Convenience & handling
        d)     All
    3.    What are the characteristics of a line extension in a variant of an established line of food products 
        a)    Little research    
        b)    Minimum manufacturing changes
        c)     No change in logistics and supply chain
        d)     All
    4.    The following one is not a characteristic of new product development through line extension
        a)    New purchasing skills
        b)    No change in logistics and supply chain
        c)     No change in storage of RM &PM
        d)     Minimum R&D

    1.    Fortification of common salt is done with 
        a)    Potassium iodide    b)    Potassium iodate
        c)    Both a & b    d)    None
    2.    Vinegar is a 
        a)    Class-I preservative    b)    Class-II preservative
        c)    Natural preservative    d)    a & c
    3.    As per FSSAI regulations, the permitted level of Sulphur dioxide in RTS beverages is not more than ______ ppm
        a)    100    b)    70
        c)    150    d)    80
    4.    Sodium nitrite is a
        a)    Preservative    b)    Buffering agent
        c)    Curing agent    d)    Flavour enhancer

    1.    As per FSSAI, 2011 regulations, what is the fat and SNF content in buffalo milk
        a)    5 & 9    b)    6 & 8
        c)    6 & 9    d)    None
    2.    As per FSSAI, 2011 regulations, what is the fat and SNF content in  cow milk
        a)    4 & 9    b)    4 & 8.5
        c)    6 & 9    d)    None
    3.    As per FSSAI, 2011 regulations, what is the fat and SNF content in  standardized milk
        a)    4 & 9    b)    4.5 & 8.5
        c)    6 & 9    d)    None

    1.    Asepsis is a process of 
        a)    Removal of microorganisms    
        b)    Keeping out microorganisms
        c)    Hindering the growth & activity of microorganisms    
        d)    Killing the microorganisms
    2.    Self-decomposition of the food is prevented by
        a)    Inactivation of enzymes    b)    Delay of chemical reactions
        c)    a & b    d)    None
    3.    Commercially available fruit beverages are generally pasteurized at 
        a)    85°C for 25 to  30 min    b)    62.5°C for 25 to  30 min
        c)    71.1°C for 15 to  30 sec    d)    92.1°C for 15 to  30 min

Zeatin: Zeatin is a cytokinin C₁₀H₁₃N₅O first isolated from the endosperm of Indian corn.

Zeaxanthin: Zeaxanthin is an isomer of lutein occurring in fruits and vegetables (spinach and corn) (Plate 260, 261 and 262).

Yabby: It is one of the burrowing Australian crayfishes (Cherax destructor) that are used for food.

Yakitori: A bite-size marinated pieces of beef, seafood, or chicken on skewers is called yakitori.

Yam: It is edible starchy tuberous root of plants (genus Dioscorea of the family Dioscoreaceae) used as a staple food in tropical areas.

Yautia: It is one of the aroid plants (Xanthosoma sagittifolium) chiefly of tropical America with starchy edible shaggy brown tubers that are cooked and eaten like yams or potatoes.

Yearling mutton: Meat obtained from 12-20 month aged sheep. It is also called Earling mutton.

Yeast: Unicellular plant body, very minute in size containing cell wall, cytoplasm with one or more vacuoles and a single nucleus, cause alcoholic fermentation (Plate 258). Yeast usually has little or no mycelium, and reproduces by budding. It results in production of yellowish surface froth or sediment that occurs in saccharine liquids (fruit juices) in which it promotes alcoholic fermentation, consists largely of cells of a fungus (as the saccharomyces, Saccharomyces cerevisiae), and is used in the making of alcoholic liquors and as a leaven in baking.

Xanthan gum: It is a polysaccharide that is produced by fermentation of carbohydrates by a gramnegative bacterium (Xanthomonas campestris) and is a thickening and suspending agent used in pharmaceuticals and prepared foods. It is also called xanthan. Xanthan is a stabilizer produced by Xanthomonascompestris(Plate 257). Xanthan is not hydrolysed or degraded by humans.

Wafer: A thin crisp cake, candy, cracker or chips is known as wafer.

Waffle: A crisp cake of batter baked in a waffle iron is called waffle

Warner-Bartzler Shear: It is one of the oldest but commonly used devices used to measure the tenderness of meat. It is used to test the quality in the cooked meat

Vacreation: The pasteurization of the milk or cream under reduced pressure by direct steam is called vacreation.

Vacuum: The state of negative pressure. It is equal to atmospheric pressure minus absolute pressure.

Vacuum cooling: A technique of cooling vegetable (leafy vegetables, asparagus, brussels sprouts) having a high surface to volume ratio; rapidly and uniformly by boiling off some of their water at 1⁰C and at low pressure (5 mm of Hg) into a sealed container. The produce is cooled by evaporation of water from the tissue surface and is more rapid than hydro cooling.

U value: U value is a measure of the heat transmission through a building part (wall or window) or through a given thickness of a material (insulation). U values with lower numbers indicate better insulating properties.

UHT milk: This milk is homogenized, heated to atleast 135^oC for about 2-3 second, cooled rapidly and then packed in sterilized containers aseptically. The milk in packs can be stored for several months without refrigeration. The nutrient loss is negligible. Used for making yogurt commercially as it does not need to be boiled again.

UHT pasteurization: The milk is heated to ~150^oC for a fraction of seconds practically no holding period. It is also called ultra pasteurization.

UHT sterilization: It is method in which food is sterilized, cooled and then aseptically placed in previously sterilized containers which are subsequently sealed in an aseptic environment.

Ultimate analysis: It is used for determination of a particular element or a compound in a food material.

Ultra heat treated milk: It is designation of the milk sold for liquid consumption after subjection to ultra high temperature to sterilize the milk by killing bacteria and other microbes including spores.

Table cream: It is also called coffee cream, single cream or homogenized cream. It is used in coffee and tests about 20% butter fat.

Table oil expeller: It is a type of the machine that is used for extraction of the oil from the oil seeds (Plate 230).

Saccharification: The process of breaking a complex carbohydrate (starch or cellulose) into its monosaccharide components is called saccharification.

Saccharimeter: A device (polarimeter) used for measuring the amount of sugar in a solution is called saccharimeter. It is also known as saccharometer. It is a hydrometer with a special scale.

Saccharin: A crystalline compound C₇H₅NO₃S that is unrelated to the carbohydrates, is several hundred times sweeter than sucrose, and is used as a calorie free sweetener.

Saccharomyces: It is one of the genus (Saccharomyces) of the family Saccharomycetaceae and is usually unicellular yeasts (brewer's yeast) that are distinguished by their sparse or absent mycelium and reproduced asexually by budding.

Safe food: Food that provide maximum nutrition and quality while revealing a minimal hazard to public health and they assume any risk present to be minimal.

Safety: Safety is a component of quality. Many experts believe that food safety is the most important quality component since a lack of safety can result in serious injury and even death of the consumer.

R - Enamel can: The acid resistant, gold coloured enamel treated can are called R enamel cans. It is used for canning of acidic food which have soluble colouring pigments.

R value: R value is a measure of resistance to the flow of heat through a given thickness of a material (insulation) with higher numbers indicating better insulating properties.

Rabbitto and putridity: The surface taint of the milk caused by Pseudomonas putrefaciens is called rabbitto and putridity.

Racking: An important operation for the wine production in which wine is siphoned off and is transferred to a fresh vat with the help of a false bottom. Racking is repeated decanting to remove the slowly setting cloud of the freshly fermented young wine. It is also called clarification. It is synonym to siphoning.

Rad: It is the unit of radiation dose being equivalent to the absorption of 100 erg/g of irradiated material.

Radappertization: It means complete sterilization of foods by using irradiation. It is equivalent to commercial sterility. High dose of the radiation (25-45 kGy) is required for killing all microbes.

Q₁₀value: The number of times a reaction rate change with a 10^oC change in temperature is called Q ₁₀value. If reaction rate doubles with 10^oC change in temperature, Q ₁₀= 2. It is also called temperature quotient.

Q-enzyme: It is a branching enzyme responsible for formation of 1-6 bonds in amylopectin.

QHV process: It stands for Quality Has Value Process.

QO₂ : It is a unit for measurement of respiration. Or It is the oxygen uptake in microlitres per milligram on dry weight per hour.

Quailing: In this practice the oranges are kept in the baskets in which they are harvested to allow the fruit to loose little moisture. It is done for a couple of hours before transport to packhouse. This practice would allow the fruit to lose a little moisture which is called quailing. This operation is done for oranges to prevent Oleocellosis.

Qualitative measurement: It is a subjective / objective measurement of the quality of the product for presence of certain compound. It gives the idea of the presence or absence of the particular compound. It deals with the nature of the substance and not its amount or quantity.

Quality: Quality is a measure of the degree of excellence or degree of acceptability by the consumer. The quality may also be defined in term of end use and may vary depending upon consumer’s perception and need. Or quality is the totality of features and characteristics of a product that bear on its ability to satisfy stated or implied needs. It is a term defined by the consumer, buyer, grader, or any other client based on subjective and objective measurements of the food product.

Pack inspection: It is similar to continuous inspection except that here inspector(s) may make in-process checks during different processing operations under contract but not required to be present all the times in the plant during operation.

Package: The package means a pre packed box, tin, barrel, pouch or can etc in which food article is packed.

Package store: A store that sells bottled or canned alcoholic beverages for consumption off the premises.

Packaging: Packaging is an industrial and marketing technique for containing, protecting, identifying and facilitating the sale and distribution of agricultural, industrial and consumer products. Packaging is defined as an enclosure of products, items or package in a wrapped pouch, bags, box, cup, bottle or any container form to perform one or more of the functions as containment, protection and preservation, communication and utility or performance. Technically, packaging is a system or method by which a product from the manufacturing point to the consumer level reaches in a safe and sound condition at an affordable cost. The primary purpose of the packaging is to protect the food product, to keep it in good condition and to preserve the flavour until it reaches the consumer. It is therefore, very essential that a suitable form of the packaging is chosen for a finished product. Packaging is an art, which determines the buying decision of a consumer. or Wrapping / placement of objects in paper / other packaging materials, keeping in box, etc is known as packaging which has two main functions, to assemble the produce / objects in convenient units for handling and to protect them during transporting, marketing and storage which results in extended shelf life of the produce. "Packaging" play a very important role not only in ensuring safety of the product during transportation, storage and distribution and in conveying information about the pack contents to the consumers, but also ensuring desired sensory characteristics and microbiological soundless till consumed.

Objective Methods: Objective Methods are used for evaluation of food quality. These are based on recognized standard scientific tests to any sample of the product without regard to its previous history. They represent the modern idea in quality control (QC) because the human element has been excluded. This method divided into three groups like physical, chemical and microbiological. The devices are used in this evaluation.

Obligate anaerobes: These microbes do no grow in the presence of oxygen.

Obligate parasite: Obligate parasites is host specific and grows on living host only and attach limited range of host and are very difficult or impossible to grow on artificial culture/media.

Obligate thermophile: These microorganisms grow at a temperature between 38-80^oC.

Oenology: Treatments used to prevent spoilage of wine is called oenology. It is synonym to that of enology.

Galactometer: It is an instrument used for recording the specific gravity of the milk.

Galactose: It is an aldohexose sugar obtained by hydrolysis of lactose.

Galactosidase: An enzyme (actase) that hydrolyzes a galactoside.

Galactoside: A glycoside that yields galactose on hydrolysis.

Galactosyl: A glycosyl radical C₆H₁₁O₅ that is derived from galactose.

Fº value: It is used to express F-value when z =10ºC / 18ºF and the temperature is 121.1ºC. It is the number of minutes at a specific temperature (250ºC) required to destroy or kill a stated number of microorganisms and has specific z-value. It is also called reference value. 

E numbers: Each food additive used in the food industry has been given a specific number code for their identification. These numbers are called as E numbers. These E numbers are used within the European Union. The word prefix “E” stands for Europe. They are commonly used on the food label through out the European Union. These are not used in Australia and New Zealand. The different food additives are given different E numbers depending upon the type of food additive like E100-E199 (food colours), E200-E299 (preservative), E300-E399 (antioxidants), E400-E499 (thickners, stabilizers, emulsifier), E500-E599 (pH regulator, anticaking agent), E600- E699 (flavour enhancers), E700-E799 (antibiotics), E900-E999 (miscellaneous like waxes, synthetic glazes, packaging gases, sweetners, foaming agents),  and E1000-E1099 (additional chemicals).

Dahi: It is the product obtained from pasteurized or boiled milk by souring, natural or by harmless lactic acid or other bacterial culture. It is also called Curd (Plate 68)

Dairy: It is a room, building, or establishment where milk is kept and butter / cheese is made or it is the department of farming / farm that is concerned with the production of milk, butter, and cheese or an establishment for the sale / and distribution of milk and milk products.

C - enamel can: The sulphur resistant lacquer is golden coloured and the can coated with it are called C-enamel can or sulphure resistant can, used for packing non acid products (Plate 35).

CA storage: Storage of commodities under gaseous atmosphere like gas storage, where the composition of atmosphere is controlled accurately. MA and CA differ only in degree of control and CA is more exact. These storage methods in combination with refrigeration markedly enhance storage life of fruit and vegetables (Plate 36).

B.T.U.: It stands for British thermal unit. The heat required to raise the temperature of one pond of the water through 1^° F is called BTU.
Baby back ribs: Meaty pork ribs cut from the lower back rib section.

Bacitracin: A polypeptide antibiotic isolated from a bacillus (Bacillus subtilis or B. licheniformis) and usually used against gram-positive bacteria.

Back Bacon / Canadian bacon: Bacon cut from the loin that has little fat and is cut into round or oblong slices.

Abnormal milk: It is milk that is not smooth and homogenous but is flaky, ropy, stringy, slimy, watery, discoloured or bad flavoured.
 
Abrassive peeler: It is equipment comprising a rotating drum lined with carborandum (an abrasive material) in which certain vegetables like potato and ginger are tumbled and exposed to the abrasive action of the carborandum lining, thereby facilitating separation of peel from the vegetables (Plate 1).

Absinthe: It is green liquor which is flavored with wormwood, anise, and other aromatic herbs. Its commercial production is banned in many countries for health concerns.

Naïve panel: It refers to the sensory evaluation panel that has not been trained specifically regarding the product evaluation being undertaken in the study.

Nano technology: It is the art of manipulating materials on an atomic or molecular scale to build microscopic devices. The word “ nano’ meaning ‘dwarf” in Greek language refers to dimension / magnitude of the material / particle in the order of 10⁹. Nanotechnology is nothing but manipulating of particles into very small particles called nano-particles. These particles have dimensions in the scale of nano-meter and used to design / build materials and devices. Nanotechnology has been provisionally defined as relating to materials, systems and processes which operate at a scale of 100 nanometers (nm) or less. It will allow many things to be manufactured at low cost and with no pollution. The concept of nanotechnology was first given by Nobel Laureate physicist Richard P. Feynman in Southern California in 1959.

NaNO_2: Pink colour of cured meat is preserved by NaNO₂. It is effective against Cl. Botulinosm

Nanogram: It is one billionth of a gram.

Macaroni: Pasta made from semolina and shaped in the form of slender tubes.

Macaroni wheat: It is tetraploid wheat and is preferred for making macaroni, vermicelli etc.

Macaroon: A small cookie composed chiefly of egg whites, sugar, and ground almonds or coconut.

Mace: An aromatic spice consisting of the dried external fibrous covering of a nutmeg.

Macronutrient: A chemical element (as nitrogen, phosphorus, or potassium) of which relatively large quantities are essential to the growth and health of a plant or a substance (as protein or carbohydrate) essential in large amounts to the growth and health of an animal.

Magnesium silicate: It is use as glazing and polishing agents in confectionery products.

Magness - Taylor Pressure Tester: It is used to study the compression or firmness of peas, pear and apples.

Lab coat: A loose white coat with deep pockets that is worn in a laboratory or medical office.

Labelling: It means any written, printed or graphic matter that is present on the label, accompanies the food or is displayed near the food, including that for the purpose of promoting its sale or disposal. After packaging, labels are required on the finished products intended for distribution and sale. Labelling can reflect on the quality of the product. It must be clear and informative. Information includes Name of the Manufacturer, Date of Manufacture, Net Weight, Gross Weight, Best before etc. Proper storage is needed for maintenance of the quality. Storage must be done only at recommended temperature, relative humidity, light and air / oxygen and carbon dioxide conditions etc. to maintain the quality of the food product. Label may include tag, brand, and pictorial or descriptive matter, written, printed, embossed, graphic, perforated, stencilled or stamped impressions. It is attached to container, cover, lid, or crown of a food package.

Laboratory: A place equipped for experimental study in a science or for testing and analysis. Broadly, it is a place providing opportunity for experimentation, observation, or practice in a field of study.

Lacquer: It is a colloidal dispersion of a solution of cellulose derivative, resin and plasticizer in solvent and diluents, where in all these constituents dried in air by evaporation of solvents, thus yielding a transparent, hard and water proof film.

Kalamata / calamata: It is brine cured black olive grown in Greece.

Kamucha: Tea cider or fermented tea beverages is known as kamucha.The fermentation process take place by the presence of yeast and bacteria

Kanji: Clean, black coloured, crisp and sound product of characteristic flavor prepared by full fermentation (chiefly lactic acid fermentation) of black carrot with 2.5% salt, 1% powder mustard and some amount of water. It is fermented to make ready to serve drink which is known as Kanji. Each kilogram of the grated carrots yield just 7-8 litres of kanji.

Karl Fischer Titration: Karl Fischer Titration is used for estimation of moisture content of foods (low moisture products).

Jaggery: Raw brown / unrefined brown sugar in lump made from palm sap (Plate 142).

Jam: A preserved product prepared on boiling pectin contained in fruit pulp with required amount of sugar, water and acid to a reasonably thick consistency, firm enough to hold the fruit tissues in position (Plate 143).

Ice bank cooling: Storing of fruit and vegetable in storage chamber with positive ventilation and system countries where ice formation is allowed during night time (as electricity cost of night is less as compared to the day time). Melting of ice occurs during day time and with proper air circulation by means of ventilation process, approximately 0.5-1⁰C temperature with 90% RH in the chamber is maintained. Ice Bank Cooler / Air forced cooler leads to desiccation of the produce (Plate 139). So use forced air high humidity cooler and these are known as Ice Bank Cooler. Ice bank coolers are useful for strawberry.

HACCP: The Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Points (HACCP) is a scientific, rational and systematic approach to identify, assess and control hazards during production, processing, manufacturing and use of food. It ensures safety of the food. HACCP presents a good opportunity for the food industry for upgrading quality and bringing uniformity and consistency in their supplies to international market, or It is a systematic preventive approach to food safety that addresses physical, chemical and biological hazards as a mean of prevention rather than finished product inspection. It involves identification, evaluation and control of hazards which are significant for food safety.

HACCP plan: A document prepared in accordance with the principles of HACCP to ensure control of hazards which are significant for food safety throughout the food chain under consideration.

Haemagglutinins: A group of proteins of plants that are not antibodies and do not originate in an immune system but bind specifically to carbohydrate containing receptors on cell surfaces (red blood cells). It is also known as Phytoagglutins/lectins.

Haff disease: A pyrolysis due to the excessive consumption of various fresh water fish which contain the vitamin antithiamine.

We all are familiar with the word “quality”. If we bring some fruits or vegetables from the market, the other family members will reflect on their quality by making observations such as: fresh or stale, good or bad quality or inferior product, etc. These observations are perceptions of consumers based on the sensory attributes of the fruit or vegetable colour, appearance, touch, smell or taste.

The quality characteristics of food that are acceptable to consumers are comprehended under the term “Food Quality. It includes external factors such as appearance (size, shape, colour, gloss, and consistency); internal factors (chemical, physical, microbiological) and characteristics/ specifications prescribed under the Government laws/standards. If consumer’s perceptions regarding quality of food are not positive he or she either will not purchase the material or will be paying less compared to when the consumer has positive perception about the quality.

The relationship between quality, profitability and market share has been well established. In the quest of quality, the dairy business is passing through revolutionary changes and the need for such changes has been very well realized. The leaders have initiated the process of setting vision and are working hard to provide the basic infrastructure with necessary resources. This has become a point of vital importance as the nation has now captured the first rank in milk production globally and is now ready and set to march ahead in the global race for dairy products market. Our country has great potential to export the dairy products such as cheese particularly Mozzarella, Feta, and indigenous products such as ghee, khoa, chhana, paneer, and array of sweets. Food items or dairy products to be traded in the international markets should be manufactured in accordance with global accepted norms and standards. In order to improve the quality of milk and milk products the Government of India is focusing on “Clean Milk Production”. As a dairy technologists and entrepreneurs, we must ensure production of quality products.