eChapters

Sterilization is defined as the process by which an article, surface or medium is freed of all living microorganisms either in the vegetative or spore state.

Disinfection means the destruction or removal of all pathogenic organisms, or organisms capable of giving rise to infection. Chemical disinfectants which can be safely applied to skin or mucous membrane and are used to prevent infection by inhibiting the growth of bacteria are called antiseptics.

Five main methods are used for sterilization. 1. Red heat (flaming) 2. Dry heat (hot air) 3. Moist heat 4. Filtration 5. Radiation.

The killing effect of dry heat is due to protein denaturation, oxidative damage and toxic effect of elevated levels of electrolytes. The lethal effect of moist heat is due to the denaturation and coagulation of protein. In the case of spore, steam condenses on it, increasing its water content with ultimate hydrolysis and breakdown of the bacterial protein.

Sterilization is a thermal process aimed at destroying all microorganisms and microbial spores in milk, ensuring the product is microbiologically safe and shelf-stable at room temperature for extended periods. It is primarily used in the production of sterilized milk and evaporated milk, with typical conditions involving heating at 116°C for 15 minutes. This process kills all microorganisms and also inactivates all milk enzymes, including plasmin, which might otherwise contribute to spoilage during storage. However, enzymes produced by psychrotrophic bacteria should not be present in raw milk, as they are highly heat-stable and may remain active even after sterilization. Sterilized milk can be stored at room temperature for longer period. Sterilization kills all microorganisms and inactivates all microbial spores that may germinate under the storage conditions of the product in the market.
The Food Safety and Standards Authority of India (FSSAI) define “sterilization” in relation to milk and milk products as the process of heating the product in a sealed container continuously to at least 115°C for 15 minutes. This treatment ensures that the milk can be preserved at room temperature for a period of not less than 30 days.
In-bottle sterilised milk is a shelf-stable dairy product produced by sealing milk in glass bottles and subjecting it to high-temperature heat treatment. Typically, the milk is heated to temperatures ranging from 110°C to 121°C for 15 to 30 minutes. This process effectively destroys all vegetative microorganisms and bacterial spores, making the milk microbiologically safe and extending its shelf life up to 6–9 months without refrigeration. The heating is usually done in batch retorts or autoclaves after the milk has been bottled and sealed. Although the process ensures safety, it often leads to a slight cooked flavour and some nutritional losses, particularly in heat-sensitive vitamins such as vitamin B1 and vitamin C.

1. Introduction

 Mushrooms have been part of man’s diet for centuries (Rajarathnam and Shashirekha, 2003). Mushrooms grow on wide range of agro-residues, biodegrade and biotransform them into edible fruiting bodies (Rajarathnam and Zakia Bano, 1988a; 1988b; 1990; Zakia Bano and Rajarathnam, 1988; Zakia Bano et al., 1993; Rajarathnam et al., 1998). Their post-harvest life is very ephemeral at room temperature (Rajarathnam et al., 1983) due to delicate flavor (Rajarathnam et al., 1990) and high moisture content, with a range of chemical constituents (Zakia Bano and Rajarathnam, 1986; 1982; 1988; Rajarathnam and Zakia Bano, 1990; Rajarathnam et al., 1983; 1992). Since, they contain large quantities of water and therefore suffer considerable weight loss during transportation and storage, causes serious economic losses, due to reductions in weight and quality (Gray, 1970). When the supply of water, organic substances and minerals are cut off at harvest, the fresh mushroom enters a deterioration or perishable phase. Cap opening and stem elongation are the usual symptoms of senescence constituting visible evidence of deterioration. At room temperature, the shelf-life of mushrooms cannot be for more than 24 h (Rajarathnam et al., 1983). During this period, there are considerable changes in color, texture and taste. In addition, water is continuously being lost as a result of transpiration and respiration. Additional loss occurs from surface cracks and bruises that develop during growth and handling (Salunkhe et al, 1991). Fresh mushrooms are white or light buff, with no dark marks on either the cap or stem. The veil is closed and the gills are not visible. The upper surface of the caps should be strongly convex and stems should be plump rather than elongated. Mushrooms are grown on compost, usually in mushroom houses where the temperature and humidity can be controlled. Eventually after harvest, the mushrooms can never be able to withstand any increase in temperature and decrease in relative humidity. Mushrooms are commercially preferred at the immature stage characterized by closed caps, invisible lamellae, round stipe and light color. Agaricus development is classified into various stages (Table 1). Thus, the concept of physiology of fresh mushrooms being very complicated, bears a great impact on the delicate problem of extending the storage life. The various means and methods studied and adopted by various researchers to aim at extended storage life of fresh produce, underlined by its physical, chemical and biochemical properties and also development of value added products are critically evaluated.

Storage is one of the most important aspects of post harvest handling of fruits and vegetables. The main objective of storage is to extend storage life of fruits and vegetables and increase their period of availability. A substantial quantity of fruits go waste in India due to lack of proper storage facilities. Storage of fruits and vegetables is practiced for various reasons. Proper post harvest handling of fresh horticultural produce helps in extending  period of availability of wide range of  fruits and vegetables round the year, prevention of seasonal market gluts, orderly marketing, better return to grower and  preservation of  nutritional qualities. The   long  term  storage  of  fruits  and  vegetables is expensive and requires high level of technical  knowledge of crop. However, an orderly marketing reduces storage period considerably. 

Introduction
• The main objective of food preservation is to avoid food spoilage • So, the underlying principle behind all the meat preservation technique is providing adverse conditions for the growth and survival of the harmful microbials and such adverse conditions may be provided in the from of heat, cold, high level of salt, increasing acidity or removal of water/ oxygen
• Meat can be preserved by many techniques such as drying, heating, low temperature, curing, addition of chemicals or by application of irradiation and high pressure
• Addition of chemical i.e. chemical preservation which is accomplished by smoking is generally done after salting and pickling of meat
Physical changes in stored raw meat
1. Shrinkage
2. Sweating
3. Bloom loss

Storage : It can be defined as keeping the commodity fresh or processed in safe condition with minimum of deteriorative changes for later use.

Reasons of Deterioration During Storage

Abstract

Pulses constitute an important component of the diet and are a major source of protein in vegetarian diet. India has largest area under pulse cultivation and produces a variety of pulses. A large portion of this produce gets spoiled due to insect and fungal attack. A variety of insecticides and fungicides are used for the control of pest during storage. There is an increasing trend towards the reduction in the use of pesticides in storage due to strong demand from consumers to choose food with no pesticide residue, development of insect resistance to pesticides and the impact of pesticides’ use on environment. All these have posed a challenge to refine the existing management procedures of storage and commodity to find the optimal solution. Controlled/ Modified Atmosphere storage offers an alternative to the use of pesticides extends storage life and maintains product quality. The Controlled/Modified Atmosphere is created by altering the composition of the atmosphere in terms of CO2, O2, and N2 concentration. High CO2 produce undesirable conditions for insects and microbes and thus control their activity.

1. INTRODUCTION

To over come the problem of glut of perishables and to regulate the market, storage of such commodities is a 'common' practice. Storage of fruits and vegetables also makes available these commodities in the off-season. Needless to say, storage is a powerful tool in the prevention of postharvest losses and to give remunerative prices to the farmers. The management of temperature and relative humidity are the most important factors determining storage life of horticultural produce. The natural means like ice, cold water, night temperature have been used for long time for protecting food materials from spoilage and these are still common. However, with the development of innovative technologies, it is possible to achieve optimal environments in the insulated stores. All these aspects are discribed in this chapter.

Introduction

India is bestowed with huge production of fruits, vegetables, cereals, millets, sugarcane along with meat production, milk production, fish production and poultry. Despite such a huge production in India, owing to perishable nature of these produce around 25-30 per cent of the produce is being lost as post harvest loss. The one important reason for this may be the production of the crops are season specific and during the peak season the production is more while demand for consumption is less. It may be possible to cut down losses to great extent, if these produces may be transported from the produce states to those who are not producing due to agro-climatic reasons. So for making transportation of the perishable a successful venture in decreasing post harvest loss, there must be proper storage facilities both at producing site as well as marketing place. The aim of the storages must be to keep the produce in saleable condition during entire storage periods. Some products are stored for short period whereas fresh fruits, vegetables require cold storage. Foods before keeping into the storage room need some pre-storage treatments for better results.

Proper marketing of perishable commodities such as fruit and vegetables often requires some storage to balance day-to-day fluctuation between harvest and sale or for long term storage. Storage of horticulture produce is attempeted with a view to extend period of availability. Storage controls shelf life of produce by controlling rate of respiration, transpiration, ripening and biochemical changes all of which are responsible for shelf decomposition/deterioration of produce. Further, different types of storage have different attributes in minimizing microbial infection and thus add to better storability of produce.

SYNOPSIS

Urban and rural agriculture are different entities in terms of stakeholder involvement and enabling environment for farming but they are dialectically interlinked in providing food and nutrition security of any country. Urban agriculture is more suitable on the production of nutritious crops, while rural agriculture’s first priority is to produce more food from staple. Attaining nutrition security is more complex than it is previously thought. However, while existing systems of production should continue at field levels by developing more nutritionally rich cropping patterns, its integration with farmers’ farming systems remains more important.

Introduction

Enterprise management involves a combination of tools, strategies, and processes that work together to form a cohesive plan and framework supporting overall operations. The key is ensuring that these elements are interconnected, which enables the smooth flow of information and minimizes redundancies.

Core business functions such as human resources and supply chain management often operate in isolation. However, this separation can slow down business operations, create unnecessary obstacles, and lead to loss of revenue or customers.

By viewing each business area as interconnected, these silos can be eliminated, leading to more efficient operations. For instance, a well-functioning human resources team can hire the right talent, which, in turn, strengthens marketing and sales efforts. As sales grow, revenue increases, enabling further improvements in logistics operations.

Abstract

The control of micronutrient deficiency is a realizable goal, notwithstanding the magnitude of the task, challenges and constraints that need to be resolved. Since wheat products particularly maida and atta form the major raw material in widely consumed food items like chapati, bread and biscuit. Fortification of flour as followed in many other countries could be an important strategy to help realize this goal. The technology of flour fortification is effective and cost affordable. Effective flour fortification program would require collaboration between scientific community, governmental and non-governmental agencies, and industry and consumer groups.

Abstract

‘Made in India’ is no more a sign of poor quality. However, in the field of food grain exports, India is still lacking the required determination. The Indian food grains get rejected in the International market because of its out-dated post harvest technology (PHT). The Food Corporation of India (FCI) is the nodal national agency for the procurement, storage, processing and transporting of food grains, and their further distribution through the Public Distribution System (PDS). The government fixes the procurement price as well as the distribution price of the food grains, and the FCI has to accept it. The government compensates the resulting loss through subsidy. The government, through FCI, must encourage cultivation and marketing of premium quality food grains, by offering suitable incentives to farmers. The cost of marketing, storage and transporting of food grains can be considerably reduced with simultaneous improvement in quality of the end product, if the prevailing bag handling is replaced by bulk handling, storage, and transportation. However this needs closer coordination between various departments of the Ministry of Food and Ministry of Railways. The President of India revealed his vision to make India a developed country by the year 2020. To achieve this, the current post harvest losses to the tune of 10 percent must be reduced to 2 percent. This is possible if the government takes bold political decision supported by equally firm and time-bound necessary

Fragaria is a genus of flowering plants in the rose family, Rosaceae, commonly known as strawberries for their edible fruits. It is a low perennial creeping herb which is widely grown in temperate and subtropical regions of the world.

There are more than 20 described species and many hybrids and cultivars. Cultivated strawberries are based on two species, Fragaria chiloensis (L) Duch., native to the west coast of North America and Fragaria virginia Duch., native to eastern coast of North America. Hybrids of these two species are ancestors to all the modern strawberries. The most common strawberries grown commercially are cultivars of the garden strawberry, a hybrid known as Fragaria × ananassa. Strawberries have a taste that varies by cultivar, and ranges from quite sweet to rather tart. Strawberries are an important commercial fruit crop, widely grown in all temperate regions of the world.

The major producers of strawberries are USA, Mexico, Poland, Japan, Italy, Israel, Australia, New Zealand and Turkey. In India it was introduced during 1960’s and is grown to a limited extent in Jammu & Kashmir and Himachal Pradesh and some parts of southern India (Karnataka and Ooty).

Cultivars/Varieites: Tioga, Tufts, Surecrop, Fresno, Toro, Heidi, Hood, Northwest, Puget Beauty, Olympus, Ozark Beauty.

SYNOPSIS

In all probability the ancient farmer’s market originated on the streets of villages and later on, on the streets of towns. The street food survived through decades and centuries and now it has assumed its new role in fulfilling the readymade food demand of the working people of mega cities. The street food has now more relevance to the growing urban population. With the lapse of time and migration people to the cities, the business and activities of street food got expanded in qualitative and quantitative terms worldwide.

Street Foods-An Introduction

The National Policy on Urban Street Vendors (2004) defines street vendor as a person who offers goods for sale to the public without having a permanent built-up structure but with a temporary static structure or mobile stall (or head load). Street vendors may be stationary occupying space on the pavements or other public/private areas, or may be mobile in the sense that they move from place to place carrying their wares on push carts or cycles or baskets on their heads, or may sell their wares in moving trains and buses. The total number of street vendors in India has been estimated to be ten million and the number of street food vendors has increased sharply in the past few years (Bhowmik 2005).

The preparation and sale of street food is an age-old activity with historical roots and complex socio-economic and cultural implications. Street food vendors are mostly outside the regulation of the governments and unregistered thus making them an informal sector. Similar to most other informal sector enterprises street food operations too are carried out with minimal investment, infrastructure and as familial operations. Street food outlets are seen mushrooming at crowded public places like bus stands, cinema halls, market areas and parks. They operate as temporary structures or as pushcarts parked near the roadside or at pavements. Most street food vendors operate their food stands alone and are able to generate sufficient income for sustenance.

Structure

Structural unit of edible portion of most fruits and vegetables is the parenchyma cells and makes up bulk of cells. A parenchyma cell is rather thin walled and may be polygonal or cubical in shape.  Walls of parenchyma cells in young plants are composed almost entirely of fibrils of cellulose. In parenchyma cells of plants actively metabolising protoplast portion represents only about 5% of total cell volume. This protoplast is rather film like and is pressed against cell wall by large water filled central vacuole.  Protoplast has inner and outer semi permeable membrane layers between which is confined cytoplasm and its nucleus. 

The word meat comes from the old english word mete, which referred to food in general. Most often this means the skeletal muscle and associated fat but it may also describe other edible tissues such as organs, livers, skin, brains, bone marrow, kidneys and lungs etc. In other words we can say meat is those animal tissues which are suitable for use as food by the man. It is composed of numerous types of tissues like muscle tissues, epithelial tissues and nervous tissues but the major component of meat is muscle. Particularly skeletal muscle is the principal source of muscle tissue in meat while smooth muscle contributes little to meat. The muscle and connective tissues are the major compositional components and contributes towards qualitative and quantitative characteristics of meat. Broadly muscle can be classified into striated and smooth muscles. Striated muscles have transverse band pattern as seen in skeletal and cardiac muscle. However, smooth muscles do not show such pattern and mainly found as a component of blood vessels.

This chapter introduces the biological structure and formation of the hen egg. It examines the shell, cuticle, shell membranes, albumen, yolk, vitelline membrane, chalazae and germinal disc and explains the functions of each component. The chapter also describes the reproductive system of the laying hen, oogenesis and the sequence and timing of egg formation within the oviduct. Comparative egg structures of other poultry species and shell pigmentation are discussed, along with shell ultrastructure and quantitative composition.

Size shape and Appearance of Bacterial cells

Bacteria vary significantly in their morphology, that is in their appearance. They range in size from 0.2 μm to1 μm in diameter and 1 μm to 10 μm in length. There are three basic shapes of cells :

1. Spherical

2. Rod-shaped

3. Spiral.

Abstract

This review presents an idea on the botanical description, medicinal properties and traditional usage of wild, edible and aromatic plant (Nymphaea alba) in the human nutrition. Nymphaea alba Lin, also known as the White Water lily, White Lotus, or Nenuphar is an aquatic flowering plant of the family Nymphaeaceae. Nymphaea is a weed in India and its production pretty much as good as water chest nut and Nelumbo nucifera. Its rhizome is rich in tannic acid, gallic acid, alkaloids, sterols, flavonoids, glycosides, hydrolysable tannins and high-molecular-weight polyphenolic compounds. It is used as associate aphrodisiac, anodyne, antiscrophulatic, astringent, cardiotonic, demulcent, sedative and antiinflammatory. Further, it conjointly produces calming and sedative effects upon the nervous system, and is beneficial within the treatment of sleep disorder, anxiety and similar disorders. Moreover, the content of starch in the rhizome is said to be 40%. Extensive work has been carried out on agronomic and phenotypic properties for most plants, but relatively little study has been carried out on the properties which are of direct technical and economic interest to competitive food and nonfood industry. Non-conventional food resources and their value addition have attracted attention in the recent yearsfor their potential use as functional ingredients in food formulations, besides food they have also been used for non-food applications. Moreover, Plants provide the predominant ingredients of medicines in most medical traditions. So, there is tremendous potential for the profitable industrial use of these medicinal plants and exploring them for further use. Keywords: Non-conventional food resources, Nymphaea alba, Rhizome.

Abstract

In the present study, a novel work on comparison of physico-chemical characterization and bacterial diversity of wheat straw compost and vermicomposting has been initiated in the tropical region. Wheat straw compost shows lesser pH, EC, TDS, Organic Carbon, Total Nitrogen and Total Phosphorus than vermicompost whereas there was an increase in Total Nitrogen, Total Phosphorus and Electrical Conductivity and a drop in the pH, TDS and Organic Carbon of the vermicompost as the composting progressed from 0, 3, 10, 17, 24 and 31 days. Strains of Bacillus spp. and Thermoactinomycetes were screened from the wheat straw compost, which are ecologically important and have commercial potential for enzyme production. These strains were able to degrade cellulose, hemicellulose and lignin and exhibited cellulase activity. Enterobacter aerogenes, Micrococcus luteus and E.coli were isolated from the gut of Eudrilis eugeniae which help in the transformation of biodegradable waste materials into valuable compost.

Abstract

Microencapsulation has found great applications in food business. However, the technology remains aloof from being fully exploited. Microcapsules offer food processors a way to shield sensitive food ingredients, mask or preserve flavours and aromas and conversion of volatile food components into easy-handled solid ingredients (like powders, capsules etc). A number of naturally occurring and synthetic polymeric materials have been identified so far that possess the entrapping property and are categorised as GRAS materials. Numerous techniques have been developed for using these entrapping materials to encapsulate the sensitive food ingredients. Controlled release of the food ingredients at proper place and right time could be therefore a key practicality that may be provided by microencapsulation. With strictly fine-tuned and stabilized release characteristic, this method adds worth to the merchandise. The areas of interest in this field include the development of alternative and inexpensive polymers that may be considered natural or mimic the properties of natural polymeric materials, like Gum Arabic, Gellan Gum, Gum Karaya, Gaur Gum and Gum Acacia. Limitations in many of the encapsulation techniques have occurred due to high value of raw materials and production. This review is effectively committed to the, properties of encapsulating agents along with the emphasis on different techniques used for encapsulation in the varied fields like food technology, pharmaceutical, commercial engineering and biotechnology.

Introduction
Microbiology techniques are used for various objectives like:
• To observe and isolate the micro-flora
• To test the microbiological quality of various food and dairy products
• To find the presence of any particular pathogenic microorganism
• To maintain a pure or mixed culture of specific microorganisms
1. Serial Dilution Techniques
• Bacteria are often present in such huge numbers that they can be difficult to count. Yet accurate counts are necessary for a variety of reasons like, for instance, assessing the quality of water or the safety of food. There are a number of counting techniques but most rely on the dilution of the sample to reduce the bacterial numbers down to a quantity that can be counted accurately.
• All bacterial plate count methods require the sample to be serially diluted until an estimated count of 30-300 colony forming units (CFU) on the plate is obtained. Plates with more than 300 CFU are very difficult to count. Plates with less than 30 CFU are not statistically reliable.
• If turbidity is observed in a broth culture, it might have millions more bacteria than you need. If this turbid broth is used directly for plating, all the CFU would grow together into a confluent mass and we would not be able to distinguish one colony from another.

Introduction
A) Cultivation of Fungi
A fungus is any member of the group of eukaryotic organisms that includes microorganisms such as yeasts and molds, as well as the more familiar mushrooms. These organisms are classified as a kingdom, Fungi, which is separate from the other eukaryotic life kingdoms of plants and animals. A characteristic that places fungi in a different kingdom from plants, bacteria, and some protests is chitin in their cell walls. Similar to animals, fungi are heterotrophy; they acquire their food by absorbing dissolved molecules, typically by secreting digestive enzymes into their environment. Fungi do not photosynthesize. Growth is their means of mobility, except for spores (a few of which are flagellated), which may travel through the air or water. Fungi are the principal decomposers in ecological systems. These and other differences place fungi in a single group of related organisms, named the Eumycota (true fungi or Eumycetes), which share a common ancestor (form a monophyleticgroup), an interpretation that is also strongly supported by molecular phylogenetics. This fungal group is distinct from the structurally similar myxomycetes (slime molds) and oomycetes (water molds). The discipline of biology devoted to the study of fungi is known as mycology. In the past, mycology was regarded as a branch of botany, although now known fungi are genetically more closely related to animals than to plants.

Introduction

Cotton is a fiber crop of Malvaceous family. There are four cultivated species of cotton viz. Gossypium arboreum, G. herbaceum, G. hirsutum and G. barbadense out of which G. hirsutum is the predominant species contributing about 90% to the global production. In India all the above four cultivated species are grown on commercial scale as a kharif crop. India is the largest producer as well as consumer of cotton in the world. The major cotton growing states of India are Maharashtra, Punjab, Haryana, Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Gujarat and parts of Andhra Pradesh & Karnataka. In Odisha cotton cultivation is an up-coming activity. Many of the western belt farmers, mainly from Rayagada, Bolangir, Kalahandi, Nabarangpur, and Nuapara districts have been taking cultivation of this cash crop. According to the report of Odisha economic survey, 2018-19 a total of 1.45 lakh ha area was cultivated in 2017-18 producing 3.65lakh bales of cotton. In Rayagada district cotton is cultivated in 9 blocks out of 11 blocks comprising an area of 35170 ha. For the year 2018-19 yield was 12.37 q/ha with production of 25.6 MT of cotton according to the data given by District agriculture office, Rayagada.

(A) Effect of Temperature
Introduction
Temperature is one of the most important physical factors affecting microorganisms. Bacteria are different from higher plants and animals in the lack of homeostatic mechanism and cannot regulate heat generated by metabolism and are, therefore, directly and readily affected by temperature. Over a limited temperature range, there is a two-fold increase in the rate of enzyme catalyzed reaction for every 10°C rise in temperature.
Bacteria may be divided into three major groups with respect to their temperature requirements: (i) Psychrophiles, those with optimum temperature between 0°C and 20°C; (ii) Mesophiles, with optimum temperature between 20ºC and 40°C and (iii) Thermophiles, with optimum temperature between 40°C and 80°C. Thermophiles are of two types: (a) Facultative thermophiles with an optimum temperature of growth between 45°C and 60°C and (b) Obligate thermophiles with optimum temperature above 60°C. Temperatures in the range between 50°C and 100°C are normally in the lethal range for bacterial cells and spores. The range of temperature preferred by bacteria is genetically determined, resulting in enzymes with different temperature requirements.
Each organism grows within a particular temperature range (i.e. cardinal temperature points). The minimum growth temperature is the lowest temperature at which growth of a species will occur. The highest temperature at which a species can grow is its maximum growth temperature, and a species grows fastest at its optimum growth temperature.  Time of exposure is a vital factor in assessing the

9.1 Introduction

Depleting natural resources, regulations on synthetic material, growing environmental awareness and economic considerations today happens to be major driving force for utilization of wastes from the agricultural crops and their residues throughout world [1]. These challenges have led to the introduction of sustainable waste management practices via optimization of processing technologies for minimization and creative conversion of the plant and the processing industries biowastes the world over [2,3,4,5]. Although world prices for sugar and petroleum products have shown spectacular variations during the last few decades, the long term outlook is very likely to be a continuous increase in the price of all fossil fuels and stagnation, at best, for the price of sugar [6]. This gloomy prospect led to the renewed interest in the wastes of the sugarcane industry during the last 50 years and has proved that the optimal use of wastes can provide not only a non-negligible support to the sugarcane industry but will also be able to redress the difficult situation sugar is presently experiencing [7]. Reliable statistics are not available to show the detailed end uses of these wastes on a world basis, but from a very rough picture of their trade, we can say that the wastes from the sugar and jaggery industry serve to be amongst the richest bioresource in this era of recycling of biowastes for renewable wealth generation [8].

CARBOHYDRATES AND SUGARS

Carbohydrates which include sugars and starches are among the most important of the food stuffs as well as the simplest of organic foods. They may be divided into three groups.

Group – I

Monosaccharides  : These are simple sugars that cannot be split into any simpler forms. The principal ones are glucose or dextrose, fructose and galactose. Glucose sometimes known as dextrose or grape sugar is found widely distributed in nature, especially in fruits and vegetables, and is one of the main constuents of honey.

It is in the form of glucose that sugar appears in the blood and is being burned continuously to produce energy. A certain amount of surplus glucose is absorbed from the digestive tract and stored in the liver as glycogen, which can be converted back into glucose when the need for more fuel arises. In the presence of yeasts, glucose undergoes fermentation and changes into alcohol.

Pure sugar when heated melts at about 160-1800c. at about 2100c sucrose loses water and becomes caramel.

In fruits, vegetables, and their products, the sugars are estimated as reducing sugars, non-reducing sugars, and total sugars. Reducing sugars in fruits and their products represent glucose and fructose. A combination of reducing and non-reducing sugars gives total sugars, whereas non-reducing sugars mainly sucrose are calculated after deducting the value of reducing sugars from the total sugars as invert sugar and multiplying the remainder with a factor of 0.95. Many fruit, vegetables, and their products like jam, jelly, juice, preserve, candy, fruit toffees, etc., containing substantial amounts of sugars, are estimated as a routine by using Lane and Eynon’s method using Fehling’s solution. However, for products having a smaller quantity of sugars, more precise methods like colorimetric methods can be used.
Method: Lane and Eynon’s Method
Principle: Invert sugar reduces the copper in Fehling’s solution to red, insoluble cuprous oxide. The sugar content in a food sample is estimated by determining the volume of the unknown sugar solution required to completely reduce a known volume of Fehling’s solution. Glucose, fructose and other] sugars capable of reducing oxidizing agents are called reducing sugars and this property is used for the estimation of sugars.

Sulphur dioxide is used as a preservative in many fruit and vegetable products. It can be added either in the form of potassium metabisulphite or by exposingthe product to sulphur fumigation by burning sulphur powder. Food safety and standards regulations have specified the maximum limit of sulphur dioxide in the finished products. Products having sulphur dioxide content exceeding the limit are considered not conforming to Indian Food Laws. Therefore, the estimation of sulphur dioxide in food products is considered an important attribute for quality evaluation.
Principle
Sulphur dioxide added to the food products may exist as undissociated sulphurous acid, as free bisulphite ions, as free sulphite ions and/or as combined SO2 in the form of hydroxy sulphonates. Sulphur dioxide is measured as free or total SO2.
Free SO2 is measured by direct titration with iodine. In the estimation of total SO2, the combined SO2 is liberated by treatment with excess alkali at room temperature, followed by subsequent acidification to prevent recombination and titration with iodine. The method used is known as the Modified Ripper Titration Method.

The contribution of dairy sector in the Indian economy has tremendous impact on the country’s GDP. India being the world’s highest milk producing country, dairy industry has a major role in changing the twin problem of the nation that is poverty and unemployment. Dairy sector also involves the under privileged group, especially the dairy farm women. There are many success stories regarding the life changing experiences gained by the farm women, who had taken dairy farming as a means to sustain their livelihood. In the area of gender equality, dairy sector has proved to be a women centric enterprise. Most of the activities pertaining to dairy farming are mostly carried out by the farm women. The dairy farming activities carried out by the farm women are tedious and in major cases their contribution remains unnoticed. They are usually carrying out activities, where most of their energy is drained, resulting in drudgery. Matters related to decision making, their opinion about adopting new technologies, starting an enterprise are not given importance by their family members. This leads to a greater setback in the emergence of success of dairy sector. Therefore, empowerment of farm women in dairy sector is one of the important criteria for the dairy industry to reach a greater height and for overall development of nation.

Abstract

Drying remained at the centre stage since the initiation of the food processing due to its promise to preserve agricultural products economically and add functionality to a food product unlike other thermal as well as non-thermal food processing operations. However, many existing drying techniques have their own limitations like nutrient loss, damage of the organoleptic quality, high cost etc. Therefore, research for better drying technologies is going on. Supercritical drying (SCD) is one such technology which utilizes higher dissolving power of super critical fluids (SCFs) to dry food products. The current chapter illustrates the mechanism of SCD as well as current state-of-art and promise of the drying technology. Also, some modelling approach of SCD has been included in the discussion to facilitate new designs and optimization of SCD for various food products.

Introduction
 
In recent years, there has been a growing interest in the functional foods because they can provide physiological benefits additional to nutritional and energetic, as for instance, antihypertensive, antioxidant or anti-inflammatory [1]. A functional food can be defined as a food that produces a beneficial effect in one or more physiological functions, increases the welfare and/or decreases the risk of suffering a particular disease. Furthermore, new types of products, derived from food, called nutraceuticals have recently been developed. These products, usually employed as food supplements, are marketed as tablets and pills, and can provide important health benefits.

2.1 Introduction

Food is one of the complex systems involving many constituents such as carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, vitamins, minerals and other phytochemicals. These all constituents are not present in the same relative proportion in every type of food and thus the foods are categorized and valued according to the presence of these constituents as protein rich foods, fat rich foods, etc. The specific type of food is in abundance with only one or at most two of these constituents and rest of the bulk is not valuable, commercially. So, if these active constituents which are present in the tissue surrounding inactive matrix, are separated, it is of great benefit with respect to increased purity, nutritive value, functional properties, reduction in volume, easy handling and transportation. On contrary some valuable food items contain undesirable constituents generally referred as anti-nutritional factors. Removal of these anti-nutritional factors enhances the food value and commercial utilization. Hence, the separation of phytochemicals and removal of anti-nutrients from the food matrices can be easily carried out by using a unit operation called as extraction.

Extraction involves the separation or isolation of active/desirable components of complex system viz., plant and animal tissues from the rest of inactive/undesirable components by using suitable means such as solvent or mechanical structure. The basic principle involved in the extraction process is partitioning of different components in accordance with the extracting agent. For example, in mechanical extraction, the partitioning is due to pressure and screen/apperature size where as in case of solvent extraction, the portioning of components from mixture takes place due to particular solubilizing power of solvent used.

Abstract

Drying is a very important unit operation in food processing. Being an energy intensive unit operation, drying process demands improvement to make it energy efficient. Beside this operating conditions used in drying affect product quality substantially; however, traditional dryers do not allow enough flexibility to meet quality requirements for several products. This has resulted in development of number of new drying techniques, to cope with both energy efficiency and product quality.

Abstract
Food insecurity and malnutrition are on the rise globally, impacting millions, especially in rural regions where extreme poverty and food insecurity are deeply rooted. Vulnerable groups, including women, youth, and indigenous peoples, are disproportionately affected. Producing foo  that meets dietary needs and ensuring its availability in the future is essential for sustainable development and food sustainability. Addressing the growing global food security concerns and supporting the increasing population requires the continual expansion of plant-based proteins’ significance. Legumes are excellent sources of proteins, carbohydrates, and both soluble and insoluble dietary fibers. Legumes, with their high dietary fiber and low-fat content, help maintain body weight and lower the risk of cardiovascular disease. They are also rich in essential minerals such as potassium, calcium, magnesium, phosphorus, and iron, and provide important vitamins like folate, thiamine (B1), riboflavin (B2), and niacin (B3). Additionally, pulses contain various phytochemicals, including phenolics, flavonoids, phytates, lectins, tannins, saponins, oxalates, enzyme inhibitors, phytosterols, and antimicrobial peptides, which offer numerous potential health benefits. These phytochemicals exhibit anti-inflammatory, anticancer, antimicrobial, and anti-ulcerative properties. Incorporating legumes into agricultural systems can foster more sustainable and climate-resilient farming practices. In developing countries, legumes are often used to supplement cereals or starchy foods to combat protein-energy malnutrition, as animal proteins tend to be expensive in these regions.
Keywords: Antioxidants, Food security, Legume, Malnutrition, Healthy diet

India produces 146 million tons of vegetables (NHB report, 2011) and the total area under vegetable cultivation is around 8.5 million ha. Potato, tomato, onion, cabbage and brinjal account for around 60 per cent of the total vegetable production in terms of quantity. India’s annual fruit production is 75 million tons (NHB report, 2011) and the total area under fruit cultivation is around 6.3 million ha. The major Indian fruits are mango, banana, citrus fruits, apple, guava, papaya, pineapple, and grapes. Fresh fruits and vegetables play a vital role in Indian context and their marketing works as an influencing force in the economy. Though retailing of fresh fruit and vegetables is a low margin business, the market potential is very large in a country like India. This factor has attracted many corporates into this sector. Marketing of agricultural produce is different and more challenging than many industrial products because of the perishability, seasonality, and bulkiness. The very nature of small size of land holdings by the farmers, varied climatic conditions, production spread over wide geographical area, mainly in remote villages, diversified consumption patterns/habits of the Indian consumers and poor Supply Chain (SC) infrastructure makes marketing for fruits and vegetables more complicated. At the same time, Indian consumers demand fresh fruits and vegetables. Thus, Management plays a crucial role in marketing fruits and vegetables. Supply Chain efficiency not only helps in increased production and per capita consumption, but also contributes to economic development of the country. As a result, Supply Chain Management (SCM) throws both challenges and opportunities in marketing of fruits and vegetables. Efficient SCM in marketing, not only increases the profitability and efficiency of retailers, but also adds value to different stakeholders like cultivators (farmers), consolidators and consumers. Traditional Retail Model of fruit and vegetables is predominantly followed in unorganized retail sector. Players involved in this model are commission agents, auctioneers, wholesalers, traditional retailer of all type of formats family run ‘mom and pop’ stores, roadside shops, pavement shops and cart vendors apart from farmers and customers.

Introduction

Different dairy development programmes are working in various parts of the country. But the dairy development programmes which are confined only to the production activities can not give the best results unless they are supported by the marketing facilities and other infrastructure.

Need for Estimation of Milk Production Potential

Estimation about the milk production potential of any region is required for establishing milk processing plant and helps in making the planning and policy for developing marketing infrastructure in that area. In fact the marketed surplus depends on the marketing facility available in the region. If there are marketing facilities in the area like good cooperative societies are operating in the region, and good prices are offered to the milk producers which covers their cost of production and margins, the marketed surplus is bound to be higher than that of the regions where marketing facilities are not existing.

Population growth and rising demand for processed food have increased pressure on food industries to improve safety while reducing energy, water, waste and environmental impacts. Green preservation technologies seek to deliver effective processing through cleaner operations, responsible resource use and reduced dependence on toxic substances. These approaches support sustainable industrial development by lowering processing time, conserving nutrients and improving the utilisation of raw materials. The chapter discusses energy-efficient preservation, water-saving techniques, waste valorisation and the conversion of by-products into useful materials. Life-cycle assessment is introduced as a method for evaluating environmental performance across the preservation system and identifying opportunities to reduce emissions, resource consumption and food-chain waste.

Abstract

Airflow drying persists as the main dehydration operation. Indeed, the high expense of freeze-drying in term of equipment cost and energy consumption considerably restricts its use and confines its applications to high added value products (pharmaceutical products, cosmetics, etc.). However, airflow drying undergoes fundamental problems such as low operation performance, poor product quality and short reliability of the equipment. The time of drying is long; particularly at the end of the operation, which implies crucial energy consumption. The poor quality of the end product is related to thermal degradation and in particular to the compactness of texture as a result of the phenomena of shrinkage and case hardening. Another main problem common to all drying operations, including freeze-drying, is the safety of the end products. Swell-drying is defined as an operation that combines optimized hot air drying with instant controlled pressure controlled texturing. The improvement of texture, the preservation of sensory and nutritional quality, the possibility of manufacturing expanded granule powders and the reduction of drying time and energy consumption allow considering swell-drying as the most relevant drying process.

SWOT Analysis

SWOT analysis is a strategic planning tool used by organizations to identify and evaluate their internal strengths, weaknesses, and external opportunities and threats. It is divided into four key components

Strengths (internal capabilities that provide an advantage)

Weaknesses (internal limitations that may hinder performance)

Opportunities (external factors that could be leveraged for growth or improvement)

Threats (external challenges that could negatively impact the organization)

By assessing these areas, a company can better understand its competitive position, make informed decisions, and develop strategies to capitalize on opportunities while addressing weaknesses and mitigating potential risks. SWOT analysis is widely used in business, marketing, and project management for strategic planning and decision-making.

Introduction

Though India is a highest producer of milk in the world, only 15 to 20 per cent of the milk is marketed through organized sector comprised of cooperative societies, public and private processing plants. Bulk marketing is limited to processing plants and cooperative societies. In contrast to Indian situation, most of the milk in developed world is consumed in different processed forms. It is something very general to India where overall food markets for processed foods are generally low and same is the case with milk. By all estimates about 75 per cent of the milk purchased by the consumer as liquid milk whether raw or processed. The share of pasteurized milk is only 10 per cent but the demand is increasing at the rate of 15 percent per annum. One fourth of the milk production is processed in the unorganized sector transforming into products like, sweets. Khoa, paneer, curd, lassi, etc. There are small scale milk product manufacturing units which fall in the category of semi-organized sector comprised of creameries, ice-cream units which are manufacturing the similar products as produced by the composite milk plants in the organized sector. They generally serve the local markets but have the important share in processing of milk as well as meeting the consumers specific demands. The organized sector comprised of mainly dairy plants, procures surplus milk through Milk Producers Cooperative Societies and generally follows the HACCP standards leading to quality of the products, whereas unorganized sector is composed of milk vendors, contractors, halwaies and creameries, collect milk from producers and sell either as raw milk or manufactured milk products or both.

Introduction

India has cemented its position as the global leader in milk production for 2023-24, contributing a staggering 230.58 million tonnes, or 25% of the world’s total supply. This achievement reflects an annual growth rate of 4%, driven by a vast network of small-scale farmers who manage one or two milch animals each. Despite their limited productivity, these farmers collectively power the nation’s dairy industry. Before the transformative Operation Flood, the sector was fragmented, dominated by middlemen, and poorly linked to urban demand. The initiative revolutionized the industry, introducing cooperative, private, and state driven organizations that established a seamless system for milk procurement, processing, and marketing. Today, thousands of dairy factories across the country transform raw milk into value-added products to meet India’s immense demand, with rural households allocating 15.51% of their food budget to dairy and urban households spending an even higher 18.19%. Coordinating milk collection from millions of scattered producers and delivering it to processing facilities is a monumental task, yet this streamlined system ensures that India’s dairy sector continues to thrive and satisfy its growing consumer base. India’s dairy export performance in 2023-24 was nothing short of “legendairy,” shipping 63,738.47 metric tonnes of dairy delights worth $272.64 million to fans in the UAE, Saudi Arabia, USA, Singapore, and Bhutan. Butter, ghee, and dairy spreads took the spotlight with $43.65 million in exports (8,106.54 MT) to destinations like Saudi Arabia, Bahrain, and Qatar, spreading Indian flavor worldwide. Cheese exports were equally impressive, with 9,262.63 MT worth $46.84 million making their way to the UAE, USA, and Bhutan clearly, everyone loves a slice of India.

Table cream: It is also called coffee cream, single cream or homogenized cream. It is used in coffee and tests about 20% butter fat.

Table oil expeller: It is a type of the machine that is used for extraction of the oil from the oil seeds (Plate 588).

Table ready meat: Cooked and smoked sausages are called table ready meat.

Tal prolong: This wax is esters of fatty acid glycosides NaCMC.

TAME: It stands for p-Toluene sulfonyl L- arginine methyl ester. It is used in isolation of Trypsin inhibitor.

Introduction

The demand for butter as table spread has declined due to high cost, poor spreadability at low temperature, high saturated fat and cholesterol content, changing life style and increased demand for healthy products. Today food industry is actively involved in new product development, this includes new formulations and imitation of foods being designed to compete with or replace existing products based on their superiority in convenience, cost and quality. The wide acceptance of bread in regular diet among urban consumers (75 percent of all household) reflects around 8 percent rate of growth in bread consumption. With this increase, the requirement of a suitable spread to complement has also increased. Table spreads include a variety of spreadable semi-solid products such as fat spreads, cheese spread, peanut butter etc. Butter has also been blended with vegetable oils/fat to produce a product that retains dairy qualities of butter with enhanced spreadability.

Tabletting is the area where sugar confectionery and pharmaceutical manufacture come closest, as the machines are similar the process can also be similar. Confectioners normally try to make tablets as hard as possible whereas pharmaceutical tablets are normally made to be fairly soft.

Tablets are made by compressing a powder in a die. Under pressure the powder fuses and is ejected as a tablet. The problem of tabletting is to produce a powder that will flow freely when poured into the die but bonds satisfactorily when compressed. Some materials are available in a directly compressible form. One example is sorbitol, which goes some way to explain the popularity of pressed sorbitol tablets with manufacturers. If directly compressible materials are not being used then the material must be granulated before being tabletted.

Granulation

Tabletting materials can be prepared by a number of different methods as outlined below:

Tamarind (Tamarindus indicus L.) belongs to the family Fabaceae. Genus Tamarindus is a monotypic taxon having only one species. Tamarind is native to tropical Africa, probably Sudan, where it grows wild and is cultivated throughout South-East Asia and America. It is also found growing in Camaroon, Nigeria and Tanzania. Tamarind has a long gestation period of 10-20 years and long-life span of even 100 years.

Cultivars/Varieties: In some regions the type with reddish flesh is distinguished from the ordinary brown-fleshed type and regarded as superior in quality. There are types of tamarinds that are sweeter. One in Thailand is known as ‘Makham waan’. Another one is known as ‘Manila Sweet’. No other improved or named varieties are available.

Uses

Tamarind pulp is an important condiment as a sour ingredient in the Indian cuisine. Pulp has an excellent keeping quality. Timber is used for making agricultural implements. The wood yields excellent charcoal and is used for making gunpowder. Starch is obtained from seeds and is used in the textile industry. Seeds can be fed to animal after roasting and removing the outer skin. Seed is also a good source of tanning. Oil is obtained from seeds and is used in paints and varnishes. Leaves and flowers are also edible. It is rich in medicinal properties. Fruits is considered as digestive, carminative and laxative. With the addition of water and sugar, tamarind yields a cool drink which is quite popular in Latin America.Today India is the largest producer of tamarind in the world.