eChapters

1.    In milk and milk products, non bacterial ropiness or sliminess may be due to the stringiness/sliminess caused/resulted

(a) Due to thin film formation of proteins, when cooled

(b) From cream thickness

(c) By mastitis, fibrin and leucocytes from the milch animal’s blood

(d) All of the above

2.    In milk, bacterial ropiness is caused by slimy capsular material from the cells usually

(a) Lipids

(b) Proteins

(c) Gums or mucins

(d) Polysaccharides

Food is a complex system of inorganic and organic compounds. These compounds are present in food in unique combination and uniquely organized structures, and therefore, every type of food has unique characteristics, nutritive value, sensory quality, texture, etc. Food items are always in physical, chemical and biological dynamics, however rate of change vary from food to food. Those highly perishable in nature undergo faster rate of spoilage as compare to those semi-perishable or stable. Foods are affected by nearly every variable of environment. Heat, cold, light or other radiations, oxygen, moisture/dryness, natural food enzymes, microorganisms, macro-organisms, industrials and agricultural contaminants, time, etc. - all adversely affect the foods resulting to its spoilage or deterioration. Spoilage may be referred to the losses in nutritive value, sensory desirability, safety and aesthetic appeal to the unacceptable level. Level of unacceptability is the subject of socio-economic status and policies of the state. A food which is of unacceptable quality for one society may be of acceptable quality for other society.

History reveals that food was the root cause of many wars and also the battles were won or lost over food spoilage and its control. Wars and the need to provide safe food to armies in the region far away from the areas of their production have always focused attention on the problem of food spoilage, and this valid today even. Some of the most important advancements in the technology of food preservation were made during the war-time. Of these, most important was the technology of preventing food from spoilage for months together developed by French scientist Nicolas Appert for French army. He won awarded money of 12,000 Francs in 1908 for this. The World learnt the art of canning foods in which the food is packed in a sealed metal container and heated sufficiently. He, however, could not explain the principle behind the preservation by canning. Some 50 years later, work of Louis Pasteur explained that the growth of microorganisms was the major cause of food spoilage which are killed in Appert’s method of preservation.

After harvesting the quality of fruits and vegetables begins to diminish and products is edible for only a limited time then products begin to spoil or rot. Losses occur during harvesting and handling of fruits and vegetables can be minimized by proper techniques but processed food spoilage is bit difficult to control and stop after infection and contamination of microorganism.

Spoilage

Spoilage is deteriorative process which results reduction in quality of food (fruits and vegetables) which become inedible. The changes in food that cause it to lose its desired quality and eventually become inedible is called food spoilage or rotting. After harvesting, the quality of fruits and vegetables begins to diminish and product is edible for only a limited time. The deterioration and spoilage of fruits and vegetables may occur at different ways.

The losses in harvested products begin immediately after detachment of products from their parental plants. After some time, theses products begin to spoil or rot. Spoilage can be defined as the deteriorative process which renders the food inedible or results in reduction in quality. Spoilage of fresh fruits and vegetables usually occurs during storage, transportation and during processing. They also get contaminated with spoilage organisms either from each other or from the containers. Mechanical injuries during harvesting and transportation further aggravates the deterioration process.

Food is essential for human survival. It provides the required energy and vital nutrients for sustainable growth and development. With the increase in population and awareness, the demand for nutritious, fresh and healthy food also increases. Although adequate food is produced in order to meet the increased demands, it fails to reach the consumers in need due to food Food Storage and Preservation Practices   35 wastage and spoilage occurring during various stages of harvesting, food production, storage and transportation. Gajanana et al., (2009) stated that there is a mammoth wastage of food post-harvest. It is estimated that 20 to 60 % of produce are wasted during and after post-harvest. 

Importance of Food Storage

Food storage is both a traditional domestic skill and is important industrially. Food is stored by almost every human society and by many animals. Storing of food has several main purposes:

•Storage of harvested and processed plant and animal food products for distribution to consumers

•Enabling a better balanced diet throughout the year

•Reducing kitchen waste by preserving unused or uneaten food for later use

•Preserving pantry food, such as spices or dry ingredients like rice and flour, for eventual use in cooking

•Preparedness for catastrophes, emergencies and periods of food scarcity or famine

•Religious reasons (Example: LDS Church leaders instruct church members to store food)

•Protection from animals or theft

Introduction

    1.    Food Science is the application of the physical, biological and behavioral science to the processing and marketing of foods (Margaret, 1968).

    2.    Technology can be defined as the science dealing with knowledge of doing things efficiently and effectively.

    3.    Food science helps us understand the theory example: what methods can best be used to store and preserve food to maintain quality and prevent spoilage.

    4.    Food technology demonstrates how the food is stored, preserved, processed and transported and has been responsible for development of new techniques for processing and preservation of food on a commercial scale and for packaging it in such a way that it can be sold conveniently.

    5.    Food science deals with the study of facts of the physical, chemical and biological sciences as they influence the processing and preservation of food.

    6.    Food technology deals with engineering and other scientific and technical problems involved in transforming edible raw materials and other ingredients into safe, nutritious and appetizing food products (Desrosier, 1977).

    7.    Food science is concerned with basic scientific facts about food, where as food technology concerned with the processing of raw materials into foods that meet human needs and wants.

    8.    Indian agriculture has undergone a sea change during the past half a century. Starting with the campaign for “grow more foods” in the forties, India reached self sufficiency during the eighties.

The proximate system of analysis consists of the analytical determinations of water (moisture), ash, crude fat (ether extract), crude protein and crude fibre. Nitrogen-free extract (NFE), more or less representing sugars and starches, is calculated by difference rather than measured by analysis.

Water

1. Water constitutes about 70 percent of an adult’s body weight and water (moisture) is the predominant constituent in many foods.
2. All foods contain varying amounts of water in the range of 20 to 90%.
3. The hypothalamus is a brain center that controls activities such as maintenance of water balance, regulation of body temperature, and control of appetite.
4. Moisture content of some foods

SYNOPSIS

There have been conflicting practices, recommendations regarding a healthy diet in human beings. Unscientific food habits are limitation to good health and active life. Because of various social, cultural, religious and economic factors human beings in the same climatic conditions and living situations, have been practicing different food habits leading to many health problems. What to eat, how much to eat and when to eat are not clear with the masses. This paper attempts to throw light on these aspects.

Introduction

Food adulteration compromises quality of foods and causes human health hazards is a menace mankind had been facing since ages. Spice adulteration scandals in the year 2004, Horse gate scandal in Europe during 2013 are famous examples of food fraud. Various forms of food adulteration and cheating such as substitution of cheaper food components in place of original product, addition of non-permitted substances, and false claims by misbranding or mislabeling are prevalent from time immemorial (Spink et al 2019).

1. General

In this the nature of objectives of the enterprise i.e. setting up a dairy farm, details of proposed investments, specification of the project area, name of the financing bank branch, status of beneficiary: (Individual/Partnership/Company/Corporation/Co-operative Society / Others) details of borrowers profile in terms of capability, experience, financial soundness, technical / other special qualifications are mentioned.

2. Technical Aspects

    a)    Location, Land and Land Development: This involves the site details of the proposed project. The total land area and its cost. Also, particulars of land development such as fencing, boundary wall, gates are mentioned in it. Thus, site map is also mentioned in this subheading.

    b)    Civil Structures: Several structures like sheds, milking room, store room, quarters for dairy farm manager / labourers are also to be constructed. So, their measurements as well as approximate costs need to be mentioned.

Formulation of meat and sea food products requires various ingredients which are commonly known as food additives. Food additives are those non-meat ingredients which are used to enhance colour, flavour, aroma and texture of the meat and sea food products. These food products can fulfil the demand of modern consumers. As per the definition of Food and Drug Administration (FDA) food additives are those substance which are used to provide a technical effect in foods. The use of food additives has become more prominent in recent years, due to the increased production of prepared, processed, and convenience foods. Additives are used for flavour and appeal, food preparation and processing, freshness, and safety. These additives can be classified as curing ingredients, extenders and binders, flavour enhancers and other additives. For the formulation of different products both raw materials and ingredients should be of food grade and sound hygienic strength. In the starting of this chapter we will discuss about ingredients used then the specific formulations will be discussed for better understanding of meat and sea food processing.

Curing Ingredients

Curing agents such as salt, phosphate, sugars, nitrite and nitrate, sodium ascorbate and erythorbate etc. have traditionally been used in various meat formulations from long back. The details of these ingredients have already been discussed in chapter-8 of this book. So we will try to discuss other ingredients which are relevant for meat and sea food products other than these ingredients. Cure accelerators such as ascorbates and erythorbates are used to speed the curing process. They also stabilize the colour of the final product. The examples are ascorbic acid, erythorbic acid, sodium erythorbate, citric acid, sodium citrate, sodium acid pyrophosphate, glucono delta lactone (GDL) etc. Glucono-delta-lactone (GDL) acts as a curing accelerator in meat and meat products. It is permissible up to 1% in sausages and up to this level it lowers the pH about 0.5 thus inhibits the growth of spoilage micro-organisms. GDL also facilitate the cured colour development.

The word biscuit is derived from Danis biscoctus which is Latin for twice cooked bread and refers to bread rusks that were made for mariners (ships biscuits) since the Middle Ages. The dough pieces were baked and then dried out in another cooler oven. All biscuits are made with flour (usually wheat flour) and all have low moisture content and thereby have long shelf life if protected from moisture and oxygen. It includes items also known as crackers (that make a noise of cracking when broken), Hard sweet and semi –sweet biscuits, cookies (which is the name that originated from Dutch word koekje meaning a small cake) and wafers, which are baked between hot plates from a fluid batter. The name cookie was adopted in North America where the term ‘biscuit’ can be confused with small soda raised breads or muffins. In other countries the term cookie is used primarily for wire cut products of rather rough shape, which often contain large pieces of various ingredients such as nuts, etc. The term ‘biscuit’ is used in Britain to describe a flat, crisp, baked product; the term cookie is reserved for something softer and thicker. Cookies are made from soft wheat flour and are characterized by formula high in sugar and shortening and relatively low in water. Similar product is known as biscuit in our country. In USA the term ‘cookie’ covers any flat, crisp, baked good. Cracker is a term reserved for biscuit of low sugar and fat content, frequent bland or savoury. Crackers are usually made from developed dough whereas cookies are made from weaker flour. These foods have in common their ability to stay palatable for a long period of time. Their ease of transportation and their ready consumption without any further preparation make them high on the list of staple snacks

All bread is made by baking a dough that has two basic ingredients, flour or meal and a liquid. Bakers can use a wide variety of both components. The most common type of flour used for bread and most other baked goods is made from wheat. Wheat flour has a pleasant taste and contains a large amount of an elastic protein substance called gluten. Gluten aids in baking uniformly light bread that rises (swells) properly. Other baking flours are made from barley, rye, corn, rice, oats, soybeans, and potatoes. These flours, particularly soybean flour, may equal wheat nutritionally, but none can match wheat for creating light, even-textured bread. Hard wheat flour makes lighter bread than does soft wheat flour because it is richer in gluten. Rye and whole wheat breads are made lighter by adding white flour. The liquids used in baking include water, sweet or sour milk, yogurt, wine, and beer.

Bread is either leavened or unleavened. Leavened breads contain some substance that produces bubbles of carbon-dioxide gas. These gas bubbles inflate the dough, causing it to rise and become light and porous. Most kinds of basic breads are leavened with a fungus called yeast. Biscuits, muffins, and cakes and other pastries are leavened with either baking powder or baking soda. Unleavened bread is dry and hard. Familiar kinds of unleavened breads include water crackers, the rye crisp of Sweden, and Jewish matzoth. Whether leavened or unleavened, most breads contain other ingredients in addition to flour and a liquid. An almost limitless variety of breads can be made by adding a sweetener, shortening, cheese, eggs, meat, fruit, vegetables, seeds, or nuts. A sweetener, either sugar or syrup, is used in almost all bread for its taste or as an aid to yeast growth. Bread may also have an external sweetener in the form of a decorative glaze. The high fat content of shortening and cheese increase tenderness and flakiness in bread. Perhaps the best example is the French croissant. Eggs help leaven bread dough by adding to the bread’s lightness. They can be brushed on top of the dough before baking to create a shiny crust, as in the Jewish hallah. Some breads from many nations contain fruit, a vegetable, meat, seeds, or nuts. Examples include the fruit scone of Great Britain, the spinach paratha of India, the Southern sausage bread of the United States, the Easter sesame bread of Greece, and the almond sweet bread of Finland.

Cakes are sweet baked products characterized by high level of sugar in the formulation and hence are foods of high calorific value. Among the various ingredient used flour, sugar, shortening and egg are the essential ingredients for cake manufacture. The optional ingredients are baking powder, milk, fruit etc. For cake manufacture the selection of ingredients is of paramount importance.

INTRODUCTION

Many people confuse fortification with the term enrichment. There is a big difference in between these two terms. Fortification means the addition of those ingredients not normally found in a food and it is added to achieve a particular dietary purpose. Lysine may be added to corn products to increase the biological value of the protein. Salt may be iodised to prevent the occurrence of goiter. Breakfast cereals may be fortified with an array of vitamins and minerals to ensure a completely balanced nutritional meal.

In enrichment, the amounts added are designed to meet specific legal standards of minimum and maximum levels of nutrients. It is recognised that in the processing of cereal products that the removal of bran and germ causes a large portion of the vitamins and minerals naturally found in the product to be lost. During World War II an effort was made to correct this deficiency by government endorsement of the enrichment of bread, flour, and cornmeal. Wheat flour, cornmeal, corn grits, bread, ready to eat and uncooked cereals, and macroni products have been enriched with thiamine, ribo-flavin, niacin, iron and in some cases, calcium and vitamin D.

W.H.O. has defined food fortification as “a process where by nutrients are added to foods to maintain or improve the quality of the diet of a group, community or population”.

Food fortification is the procedure in which micronutrients (essential trace elements and vitamins) are added to the food. As a public health policy fortification can be carried out by the food manufacturers or by the governments to help people in combatting dietary deficiencies within a population. Fortification can be done in food even if these nutrients are originally present or not. However, it improves the nutritional status of a population by overcoming the deficiencies of micronutrients. Deficiency of micronutrients is known as hidden hunger which is a serious health risk. Access to safe and nutritious food is a must.Due to the lack of consumption of a balanced diet, adequate micronutrients are not supplied to the body. Therefore, there is a considerable loss of nutrients during the processing of food. One of the strategies to address this problem is fortification of food.

1. Introduction Millets, including foxtail millet (Setaria italica), are gaining popularity as “smart foods” due to their numerous benefits for the planet, consumers, and farmers (Anitha et al., 2021). Foxtail millet, classified as a major millet, belongs to the genus Setaria in the Poaceae family. It has a rich history, with archaeological remains dating back 7400-7935 years in northern China and cultivation in Europe around 4000 years ago (Lu et al., 2009). Foxtail millet is currently cultivated in 26 countries and stands as the secondhighest cultivated millet globally. It is a relatively short plant, growing up to 2-5 feet tall, and demonstrates high resistance to various stresses, both biotic and abiotic(Sharma and Niranjan, 2018). The crop’s short generation cycle of 5-8 weeks from planting to flowering, followed by 8-15 weeks to attain seed maturity, allows for harvesting within 75-90 days after plantation. Foxtail millet produces hundreds of seeds per inflorescence (Li et al., 2020).

1.1 Introduction Millets are the most ancient grains that have been cultivated since time immemorial and consumed as food, feed and pastures. Millets are considered nutraceuticals’ since they possess significantly higher nutritional qualities compared to other cereals. Millets are grown across the world for grains and human food due to their nutritional advantages and ability to withstand adversities. Millets are preferred over other grains due to their short life cycle, low input requirement and ensured production with in-built genetic tolerance for abiotic stresses. Major millets include Pearl millet (Pennisetum glaucum L.) and sorghum (Sorghum bicolor L.), while there are numerous minor millets classified as small millets. With an extent of over 0.87 lakh ha and a production of 0.66 kg ha-1, India is the world leader in small millet production (Maitra and Shankar, 2019). Small millets are primarily grown on rainfed uplands in arid and semi-arid climates with sub-optimal management. Following the green revolution due to extreme demands for food, the main focus in India was on the production of fine cereals mainly rice and wheat to overcome hunger and poverty, while millets became ignored grains. Furthermore, urbanization, increased affluence and dietary changes relegated millets to the status of poor man’s food. However, due to a re-evaluation of nutritious characteristics, millets have recently regained their lost prestige (Maitra, 2020).

Fraudulent substitution of meat is the adulteration or mixing of the inferior or cheaper quality meat into superior quality meat. The first case of fraudulent substitution was recorded in thirteenth century A.D. at Florence in Italy. A common fraud in the meat industry in which uninspected meat is substituted for meat that has undergone inspection and been branded as satisfactory. The other frauds are the substitution of meat of another species, e.g. horse for beef especially in Britain and Ireland, beef in kangaroo meat in Australia, cat for chicken or rabbit, goat meat for mutton, mutton for venison, dog meat and cat meat for chevon in other countries including India. As per an estimate about 25-30% of meat sold in India is adulterated. These practices are more common in comminuted meat products. These illegal practices are punishable under PFA act 1955. The choice of method to be applied is depend on the need or condition of meat recovered.

Food preservation methods are important in order to avoid glut or shortage of food in the market. In addition it helps to increase the shelf life, maintain the nutritional and sensorial quality, facilitate transportation and improve the overall value of the commodity. Even though various methods of food preservation are available now. Most of the conventional methods are thermal preservation methods which may result in the loss of volatile nutrients and flavour, different sensorial modifications, microbial spread with or without gas production, damage to the microstructure, rupture of coating or packaging surfaces and microbial recontamination caused by non-hermetic closure.