eChapters

The uronic acid pathway is a minor and alternative pathway for glucose oxidation and for the production of uronic acid sugar. Uronic acids of sugars are formed when the terminal carbon’s (C6) hydroxyl group (CH2OH) of sugar gets oxidized to a carboxylic acid. Uronic acid names depend on the name of the parent sugars. Uronic acid of glucose is glucuronic acid, hexose uronic acids are hexuronic acids, and pentose uronic acids are named penturonic acids. The uronic acid pathway is located in the cytosol of the liver and adipose tissue.
The glucuronic acid should not be confused with gluconic acid (aldonic acid) and glucaric acid (aldaric acid or dicarboxylic acid). Gluconic acid (aldonic acid or “onic” acid) is obtained from D-glucose by oxidizing its aldehyde group at C1 to a carboxyl group. Glucaric acid (aldaric or dicarboxylic acid) is formed upon oxidation of both the terminal hydroxyl groups (C1 and C6) and the aldehyde. They have two carboxylic acid groups. This pathway yields pentoses & ascorbic acid or vitamin C (not in primates & guinea pigs) from glucose.

Substantial onion losses occur after harvest through sprouting, rotting, physiological weight reduction and quality deterioration. Proper harvest timing, careful handling and effective curing are therefore essential for maintaining marketability and extending storage life. This chapter explains maturity indices, including appropriate levels of top fall, and compares field curing with forced-air methods. It examines topping, grading, packaging, transportation, storage temperature, relative humidity, ventilation and disease management. Physiological and biochemical changes occurring during storage are also considered. An integrated post-harvest approach combining correct maturity assessment, suitable harvesting, complete curing, careful handling, controlled storage and regular quality monitoring can considerably reduce losses and improve year-round onion availability.

SWOT Analysis

SWOT analysis is a strategic planning tool used by organizations to identify and evaluate their internal strengths, weaknesses, and external opportunities and threats. It is divided into four key components

Strengths (internal capabilities that provide an advantage)

Weaknesses (internal limitations that may hinder performance)

Opportunities (external factors that could be leveraged for growth or improvement)

Threats (external challenges that could negatively impact the organization)

By assessing these areas, a company can better understand its competitive position, make informed decisions, and develop strategies to capitalize on opportunities while addressing weaknesses and mitigating potential risks. SWOT analysis is widely used in business, marketing, and project management for strategic planning and decision-making.

Plants, with the help of photosynthesis, convert simple molecules (like carbon dioxide and water) into more complex molecules (anabolism) through various chemical reactions. Animals synthesize more complex molecules (anabolism) from monomer units through multiple chemical reactions. Anabolism refers to a biosynthesis process involving the sequences of biochemical reactions by which complex molecules are formed in living cells from available monomer units. Anabolic processes include the biosynthesis of complex biomolecules like carbohydrates, proteins, and lipids. The anabolic processes require energy from high-energy bond compounds like ATP.
The anabolic processes related to the biosynthesis of carbohydrates include
(1) Gluconeogenesis and
(2) Glycogenesis
11.1 Gluconeogenesis
Gluconeogenesis is the synthesis of new glucose molecules from noncarbohydrate molecules. The non-carbohydrate molecules that are used for gluconeogenesis are derived from glycolysis, lipolysis, and proteolysis. Examples are pyruvate, lactate, glycerol, and glucogenic amino acids. The liver and kidneys are the preferred organs for the gluconeogenesis process. It also occurs to some extent in the brain. Blood glucose levels are maintained at physiological concentrations through the process of gluconeogenesis in humans and ruminants. The blood glucose drops below normal levels during various conditions like fasting, starvation, pregnancy, lactation, fever, and low carbohydrate diets.

Glycogenesis helps to maintain blood glucose, as it is a primary source of energy for every cell. An inadequate supply of glucose to the body may lead to the failure of the vital organs. Glucose, when in excess, is synthesized into glycogen and stored (glycogenesis), mainly in the liver and muscles (including the uterus). It is also found in other tissues, such as the kidney, brain, heart, and adipose tissues. The stored liver glycogen is broken down (glycogenolysis) into blood glucose when needed. Still, the glycogen stored in muscle is broken down to glucose 1-phosphate and converted to blood glucose later. Either the synthesis or breakdown pathway is primarily active at a time in tissues. Glycogen synthesis and its breakdown are not reversible processes.
The percentage of glycogen stored in skeletal muscles is less ( 1% to 2%) than in the liver (10%). Still, the total quantity of glycogen is greater in muscles due to their greater mass than an animal’s total liver mass. Muscle mass, on average, ranges from 40 to 45 % of body weight for the most mature mammals.
Glycogen synthesis (glycogenesis) is an anabolic process forming a branched homopolysaccharide made of several chains of alpha D-glucose units linked by α-1,4 glycosidic bonds in a linear chain and nearly every ten glucose residues; the chain branches off via α-1,6 glycosidic linkages. The α-glycosidic bonds give rise to a helical polymer structure. The number of glucose units in a single glycogen molecule varies (1,700 to -600,000 units). The glycogen granules are formed on the glycogenin protein in the center, so it acts as a primer, and their number determines the total number of glycogen particles.

Introduction

In every industry main running factors are as Manpower, machine, material and money.

Money is main big factor for capital expenses as well as operating expenses. Beside this other driving force are man power who installed and run the any industry based on their skill level.

Every organization has their own organization structure to manage industrial operation based on product variant like market milk, curd, paneer, buttermilk, butter & ghee, ice cream etc. Basic dairy plant organization structure is shown in below table and HR department mainly keep in mind to recruit them based on functional requirement, educational qualification, professional experience etc.

Based on above manpower requirement and product variants, processing cost to be worked out.

Recruitment of Manpower

Manpower is major key component of any industry/organization to run efficiently. The dairy industry, being one of the most vital sectors of the global agricultural economy, relies heavily on a skilled and efficient workforce to sustain its operations. Manpower’s involvement starts from milk production at farm level to processing and marketing of value-added dairy products, every stage to ensure quality, productivity and compliance with industry standards. Recruitment and training of manpower, therefore, play a primary role in addressing the challenges of modern dairy operation, including technological advancements, quality assurance, and sustainability.

Glycogen breakdown is known as glycogenolysis. This breakdown occurs in the cytoplasm of cells of the organs, wherein glycogen is stored. The end product of glycolysis is glucose in the liver, which is glucose-1-phosphate in skeletal muscles.
Glycogen is a polysaccharide synthesized from glucose monomers. Glycogen is stored in the cell instead of glucose because glucose requires more water, whereas glycogen can be stored with much less water. Most of the stored glycogen is in the liver (5% of body weight) and muscle (1 to 2 % of body weight). Muscle and liver glycogen undergo glycolysis for different purposes. Muscle glycogen provides energy for muscular activity, whereas liver glycogen helps to maintain the blood glucose level.
Glycogen contains many glucose residues (up to 120,000) linked by alpha 1-4 glycosidic bonds, forming a straight chain. Glycogen has branches at alpha 1-6 glycosidic bonds at every ten glucose residues. At the reducing end, the carbon one of glucose is free, whereas it is not accessible in the case of non-reducing ends.

SYNOPSIS

Inspite of the fact that governments in various food summits and conferences have made commitments on food and nutrition security, presently more than a billion people are suffering from hunger and malnutrition worldwide. The food and nutrition policies need to be revisited and updated to address both man-made food scarcities and natural disasters of present and future to mitigate hunger and malnutrition.

16.1    Banana Alcohol
    
16.2    Banana Pseudostem Fibre and Fibre Reinforced Products
    
16.3    Banana Pseudostem Juice
    
16.4    Banana Starch
    
16.5    Banana Waste for Mushroom Production
    
16.6    Paper and Pulp from Banana Waste
    
16.7    Vermicompost and Vermiwash from Banana Waste
    
16.8    Animal Feed from Banana Waste
    
16.9    Banana Leaf

The major components of foods are the protein, carbohydrates and fat. The spoilage of foods containing fats includes the deterioration of the fatty components; the principal difficulties found in their preservation are in the development of rancidity. The spoilage of fats and oils has received much attention and substantial progress has been made in their preservation. One of the major causes of food deterioration is the chemical oxidation of unsaturated fatty acids in the lipids present in all foods. These fats are present in fat deposits and in cell membranes. End products of lipids oxidation, mainly aldehydes and ketones, contribute to the rancid off flavour and odours in the foods.

Fatty acids in food occur in the form of esters with the alcohol. The predominant esters are triacylglycerols accompanied by minor amounts of mono- and diacylglycerols and free fatty acids. The unsaturated bonds present in all fats and oils represent active sites that can react with oxygen. This reaction leads to formation of primary, secondary, and tertiary oxidation products that may make the fat or fat containing food unsuitable for consumption. Other consequences of oxidation include discolouration; changes in the texture, flavour and taste; and loss of nutritional value due to the destruction of essential fatty acids as well vitamins. Unsaturated fatty acids are subject to oxidation at their double bonds. In the presence of suitable catalysts, or in contact with lipooxidase enzymes, long chained unsaturated fatty acids may be fragmented to short chained fatty acids. The cleavage usually involves an intermediate peroxide formation. Many chemicals compounds aid in food preservation to protect the nutrients, flavour and texture, and storage stability of food stuff for longer period.

1.0. Introduction

Any commodity, produce or harvest in organic or inorganic form to be fit to eat by a particular society, and contributes materially towards growth and repair of tissue is known as food. Food processing is application of techniques in a systematic manner for preventing losses through preservation, processing, packaging, storage and distribution to ensure greater availability of a wide variety of foods. It is a set of methods and techniques used to transform raw ingredients into food for consumption by humans or animals.

The early stages of food processing were largely confined to primary processing of food crops, commodities and produce whereby all these rendered fit for consumption or sale in the markets. Processing of rice and oil seeds were the necessities of that time for living. Later on, World War II gave a fillip to some of other food processing industries to meet the demand of the defence forces of the country. Fruits and vegetables processing; wheat and sugar milling drew support and sustenance from the exigencies created by war. Post war situation almost merged into the post-independence scenario. However, food processing industry received its first major impulse after independence. During this time, all the primary food processing industries received top most priority and all necessary support from the Governments in the country.

This chapter introduces the principles used to preserve egg quality and extend shelf life after laying. It examines deterioration mechanisms during storage, including moisture loss, carbon-dioxide loss, albumen thinning and weakening of the vitelline membrane. Refrigeration, thermostabilization, shell coating, oiling, controlled and modified atmospheres, water-glass preservation and emerging non-thermal approaches are discussed. The chapter also introduces kinetic shelf-life modelling and time–temperature concepts for predicting quality deterioration. Emphasis is placed on maintaining an unbroken cold chain and controlling temperature and humidity during storage.

This chapter introduces the processing of shell eggs into industrial egg products. It classifies products according to egg fraction and physical state, including whole egg, albumen, yolk, liquid, frozen and dried products. Breaking and separation operations, liquid egg production, pasteurization, freezing, dehydration, spray drying and desugarization are discussed. The chapter also covers quality control, packaging and storage of processed egg products. Particular attention is given to balancing microbiological safety with functional properties during pasteurization and processing.

Fermentation was known to mankind from time immemorial. But, development of biochemical principles of  fermentation  was originated by  Lavoisier in France in 1789 by way of analysing chemical composition of  sugar and its fermentation products such as ethanol, carbon dioxide and  acetic acid. Many products are produced by fermentation process. In fermentation, controlled action of selected microorganisms is used to alter  texture of foods, preserve foods by production of acids or alcohol or to produce fine flavours and aromas which increase value of raw materials.

Introduction The Indian culinary world may have just recently embraced the concept of edible flowers, but they have been a part of traditional Indian cuisines since the beginning. Flowers have been used in human diets and gourmet preparations for thousands of years (Fernandes et al., 2020). However, due to increased consumer knowledge about the effects of nutrition on human health, there is a growing trend in utilizing flowers for edible purposes (Chatzopoulou et al., 2020). Edible flowers were used as a relish and flavour enhancer in many savoury and sweet meals in ancient Rome and Greece. In China’s ancient texts and classics, the words and phrases regarding edible blossoms were also recorded by Zhao et al. (2017). Edible flowers come in a wide variety of colors and cooking ways in different nations. Flowers, such as Osmanthus fragrans Lour and Flos Sophorae, have been employed as basic ingredients in a range of Chinese cuisines (Cunningham, 2015). The people of Rome used flowers in cooking. They make salads using violets and roses and sauces using lavenders. Flowers from pumpkin and squash plants have long been used as ingredients in the United States. People consume aromatic flower buds and unopened blossoms in El Salvador and Honduras. Blossoms are frequently used to garnish food at aristocratic banquets and feasts across Europe. Dandelion (Taraxacum officinale) flowers are also added to beverages and salads in many parts of the world.

This chapter introduces the microbiological characteristics of eggs and egg products, beginning with the egg's natural physical and chemical defenses against microorganisms. It examines routes of contamination, spoilage microorganisms and spoilage patterns, with particular emphasis on Salmonella Enteritidis and its public-health significance. Other pathogens of concern and the distinctive microbiology of processed egg products are also considered. The chapter discusses microbiological testing, indicator organisms, contamination control and predictive microbiology, providing a foundation for designing effective safety systems throughout the egg value chain.

The present publication has highlighted the issues on different aspects of food sector expressed by very distinguished authors. The issues have been discussed and illustrated how we conceive food as an item, what and how much food is known to consumers, what are common food sources, the relationship between food and health, food and nutrition security programmes in different regions of the world and how do we perceive food and nutrition policy challenges?

Extrusion cooking is an emerging technology having advantages of low production cost, capable of producing end products in various shapes and sizes, from a variety of food materials with easy digestibility, maintaining hygiene and high product quality and leaving no effluents or hazardous materials. Minimal energy consumption and processing costs and possibility of flavour addition are the added advantages of technology. The process/technique has the versality and ability to constituently produce a given product in continuity at a given set of pre – determined specifications. It destroys fat splitting enzymes to avoid rancidity and thus extends the shelf life of products considerably. Microorganisms present in food materials are destroyed. It can be effectively utilized to develop functional and designer foods by using several locally available under-utilized food materials. However, it leads to increased package cost as puffed or expanded food products have low bulk density. R & D studies are further needed for co – extrusion of variety of cereals with high fibre content foods and micronutrients.

This chapter introduces specialty eggs whose composition, production system or marketing attributes differ from conventional eggs. It examines designer eggs, omega-3 enrichment, vitamin and mineral enrichment, organic egg production, free-range and cage-free systems, and welfare-oriented production. The chapter also addresses labelling, certification, consumer trust and the market prospects of specialty eggs. Particular attention is given to the biological basis and technological limits of nutritional enrichment and to critically evaluating claims concerning nutrition, welfare, safety and environmental benefits.

This chapter introduces emerging technologies and future directions shaping egg science and the egg industry. It examines novel and non-thermal processing, active and intelligent packaging, sustainable packaging, egg analogues and plant-based alternatives, precision layer farming and digital tools. Nutraceutical and pharmaceutical applications are also explored. The chapter evaluates the environmental footprint and sustainability of egg production and identifies research gaps and opportunities, particularly for India. It concludes with a future-oriented perspective on improving cold-chain infrastructure, grading, food safety, welfare, value addition, sensing and evidence-based development of the Indian egg industry.