eChapters

Abstract

Grains in present context are food grains. The PFA Act includes cereals, millets, and pulses in food grains. At times, seeds of certain oilseeds like soybean are also referred to in the discussion of food grains. Grains have been cultivated for thousands of years. We have Grain Standards as established by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO), which are considered as International Standards. Another source is Codex Alimentarius Commission (Codex) under the aegis of FAO (UN), which operates a Committee to formulate standards that are referred to as Codex Standards. Many countries have a National Standards Institution, which develops National Standards for their main grain crops and other commodities and issues specifications along with methods of testing and analysis. Several countries, which are in developing status, adopt or modify international standards into their national system. The Grain Standards have been evolved and established for a variety of purposes but primarily to grade produce in agricultural marketing largely to facilitate the movement of grain, provide both sellers and buyers with guidelines to support financial transactions, and ensure that the produce will meet up with end-use requirements, or, increasingly to protect the consumers.

This chapter introduces grading and standardization as mechanisms for converting biological variation in eggs into defined commercial specifications. It examines grade factors, quality classes, egg sizing and weight classification, and Indian standards including AGMARK and BIS. International approaches such as Codex, USDA and EU frameworks are compared. The chapter also describes automated grading equipment, candling, packing systems and packaging requirements. Particular attention is given to Indian egg-marketing channels, price behaviour, cold-chain requirements and consumer perception.

Abstract
 
Grains are usually harvested above 20% (wb) moisture level and they are prone to microbial attack at high moisture level. In order to avoid both qualitative and quantitative losses that arise from microbial growth, grains are usually dried to safe moisture level. The safe storage moisture content may vary from 8-16% (wb), depending upon the grain and climate type. Therefore, drying is a necessary step in preventing these losses. Drying also reduces the bulk weight of the materials, thus easing transportation and storage. Drying can occur in thin layer or in deep bed. Different drying theories are proposed to characterize these drying processes. Theoretical as well empirical drying equations have been developed.

Abstract
Grain legumes, also known as pulses, are vital to sustainable agriculture due to their roles in enhancing soil fertility, providing essential nutrition, and supporting environmental sustainability. By establishing symbiotic relationships with nitrogen fixing bacteria, legumes naturally enrich soil with nitrogen, reducing reliance on synthetic fertilizers and fostering sustainable farming practices. Their inclusion in crop rotations not only boosts soil health but also supports food security, especially in developing countries where they are a key source of plant based protein and nutrients. The impact of climate change, including rising temperatures, altered precipitation patterns, and increased frequency of extreme weather events, presents significant challenges to agriculture. In this context, grain legumes demonstrate considerable climate resilience. Their drought tolerance, heat resistance, and ability to fix atmospheric nitrogen make them well-suited to withstand climate stress. Legumes exhibit mechanisms such as deep root systems, efficient water use, and adaptability to diverse environmental conditions, contributing to their robustness in the face of climate variability. To bolster the role of grain legumes in climate-resilient agriculture, climate-smart practices and technological advancements are essential. These include optimizing planting strategies, adopting water-efficient methods, and breeding for improved resilience traits. Addressing challenges such as climate variability, pest pressures, and resource limitations is crucial for maintaining the benefits of legumes. Future efforts should focus on developing robust management
practices and improved varieties to ensure the continued contribution of grain legumes to food security and environmental sustainability.
Keywords: Climate Resilience, Drought Tolerance, Grain Legumes, Heat Resistance, Sustainable Agriculture, Water Use Efficiency

Abstract
Grain legumes, a group of crops which belong to Fabaceae family, are primarily grown for their edible seeds. Pulses contain a high amount of protein (20-25%), vitamins, and minerals. Consumption of pulses can be beneficial for cardiovascular health, weight management, for diabetics, cancer management, bone health etc. So, grain legumes can play a significant role to address future global food security, environmental sustainability, and nutritional needs. The nutritional value of grain legumes can be significantly enhanced through biofortification, agronomic intervention, processing, and value addition. So, diversification of food habit with pulses and cereals can solve the prolong problem of malnutrition in developing countries including India. Despite such great importance, global food legume production has
been found to increase at a very slow pace. Keywords: Biofortification, Environmental sustainability, Food security, Grain legumes, Nutritional security
Introduction
Grain legumes or pulses are a group of crops which belong to family Fabaceae, are primarily grown for their edible seeds. The common examples of grain legumes include: bean (Phaseolus spp.), lentil (Lens culinaris), chickpea (Cicer arietinum), pea (Pisum sativum), soybean (Glycine max), lupin (Lupinus spp.), broad bean (Vicia faba), igeon pea (Cajanus cajan), grass pea (Lathyrus sativus), black gram (Vigna mungo), green gram (Vigna radiata). Grain legumes can play a significant role to address future global food security, environmental sustainability, and nutritional needs. Pulses are the second most important food crop after cereals and an important source of proteins, vitamins, and minerals. Pulses are popularly known as “Poor man’s meat” and “Rich man’s vegetable”. Pulses contain a high amount of protein (20-25%), which is almost double and triple of the protein content of wheat and rice, respectively and so can contribute significantly to the nutritional security of the country. Besides, they may serve the purpose of protein rich fodder and good quality green manure crop. Pulses can thrive well in low and marginal land with less external inputs. They act as erosion resisting crops because of its deep tap root
system, leafy growth, and close spacing. Pulses can also be grown as paira crop or inter-crop in different growing situations. Being a leguminous crop, it can fix atmospheric nitrogen with the help of its root nodules, resulting in low requirement of external fertilizer. Keeping the importance of pulses in mind, United Nation’s Food and Agricultural Organization (FAO) also declared 2016 as the ‘International Year of Pulses’.

3.1 Introduction

The production of food grains in India is around 200 million tonnes and most of the grains are converted to primary products after primary processing such as threshing, dehulling, de-branning. Some of the grains are converted to secondary products such as flour or grits. The yields of primary and secondary products range between 65-80% indicating a wastage of 20-35%. These wastes lead to unclean surroundings and air pollution due to fine dust. Hence, proper waste management/utilization of food grain processing industries has become a societal need for a clean environment.

The term ‘waste’ has different meanings to different people. It can be retractions from the main process or less utilizable by-products or undesirable waste material depending on the commodity. All food-processing industries generate wastes and create problems for its management. The best way the food processing industry can treat its waste is to avoid producing it. Much of the waste now being produced or generated in some food processing plants can become a managed resource for producing economic credits. In fact, waste utilization is one of the world’s prominent industries and its activities cut across the normal divisions into which industries are placed. Similarly, there will be wastes from agriculture, animal and meat industries, textile, rubber etc. Even the local governmental activities that collect and dispose the household wastes become apparent in terms of the huge size of it.

Food is a vital requirement for all living beings, as it provides the essential nutrients necessary for growth, development, and recovery. Humans depend on both plants and animals for nourishment, which we acquire through agricultural practices and animal farming. With the increasing global demand for food, crop yields have risen, which has led to a greater reliance on warehouses for grain storage. However, merely increasing food production is insufficient to combat hunger and malnutrition, as food security also heavily depends on ensuring that food is accessible to everyone. Crops, however, are exposed to various threats, such as pests, weeds, and diseases, which can drastically reduce yields if not managed adequately.
A significant issue is storage losses, which are driven by both biological elements (such as fungi, insects, and rodents) and environmental factors (such as unsuitable storage conditions or extreme temperatures). These losses result in various negative consequences, including:
• Reduced food quality
• Lower seed germination rates
• Loss of weight in crops
• Discolored produce
These problems can impede the marketing of harvested crops, leading to unsold goods and considerable losses for farmers and distributors.
To reduce these losses, it’s crucial to adopt proper measures like efficient treatments and continuous monitoring of storage conditions. Grains should be stored in environments that prevent deterioration. This can be achieved by ensuring thorough cleaning before storage, drying grains thoroughly (both under the sun and in the shade), and taking steps to control pests, including fumigation.

15.1 Fondant

The word fondant is said to come from the French verb fondre to dissolve. Confectionery fondants are normally made by boiling a sugar and glucose syrup in order to concentrate it before the mixture is cooled with beating to produce fine sucrose crystals. Some fondants used in baking are made by mixing icing sugar with a sucrose and glucose mixture. The icing sugar has a small particle size because it has been milled whereas the sucrose in a crystallised fondant has small crystals. It is possible to make a fondant using dextrose instead of sucrose. Crystalline dextrose has a positive heat of solution, i.e. heat is absorbed, and this produces a marked cooling effect which goes well with a peppermint flavour, but one which is not particularly attractive economically, but they can be in some other countries.

1.    The outer layer of cereals is called

(a) Pericarp

(b) Germ

(c) Seed coat

(d) Endosperm

2.    The grain or edible seed of a cereal is known botanically as a

(a) Testa

(b) Caryopsis

(c) Seed coat

(d) Endocarp

Grapes belongs to the family Vitaceae and genus Vitis. The region between Black and Caspian Sea is considered to be the origin of grapes. Its association with man is believed to be older than that of rice or wheat. Viticulture and wine-making started in Egypt at about 3000-4000 BC. It is presumed that it spread to India in 620 B.C. The medical treatises written by Charaka and Sushruta in the 1^st century AD reveal use of grapes for medicinal purpose. Viticulture in India started in early 1960 and today assumes an important position in horticulture crop in view of its area occupied, production, value addition and job creation in both rural and urban areas.

Popular Varieties of Grapes

Thomson Seedless and its clones viz.; Tas-A-Ganesh, Sonaka and Manik Chaman; Perlette, Banglore Blue (Isabella), Kishmish Chernyi (Sharad Seedless), Muscat Hamburg (Gulabi), Flame Seedless, Red Globe, Crimson Seedless and Manjri Naveen (A clonal selection from Centennial Seedless).

Uses

Grapes has several uses like table purpose, raisin, juice, wine making and canning, etc. It has several medicinal and curative properties. It is used in Ayurvedic preparations for making Kada or arishtam (herbal tonic or medicine). The grapes which are used as a fresh fruit are designated as table grapes. These are having attractive appearance, and good eating and shipping quality and long shelf-life. The grapes that can be dried are included in the Raisin grapes. Wine grapes which are primarily used to produce wine are known as wine grapes. In many parts of the world, grapes are grown for wine preparation. Grapes with high acid and low sugars contents are suitable for wine preparation.

ABSTRACT

Green technologies are required in the field of food processing and production in order to achieve food security and to reduce adverse environmental impact. Application of nano technology in food processing and production can advance the food safety and quality, increase the bioavailability of nutrients and thereby improving human health. Nanotechnology can be applied to achieve green perspective like development of biodegradable packaging materials thereby reducing adverse environmental effect. Use of naturally occurring nanoparticles as additives can reduce the use of chemicals in food products. This chapter deals with the potential of nanotechnology to achieve green aspects in food processing and production.Main focusses are on achieving food security and environmental sustainability. Chapter also describes about the principles of nanotechnology and methods to achieve green aspectin food sector with the application of nanotechnology. Application of nanotechnology in food processing and production along with safety, regulations and accompanying laws are discussed in this chapter.

Leafy vegetables are rich sources of provitamin-A, vitamin C and minerals like calcium, magnesium, iron, etc., They are the riches sources of roughes or fibres essential in human diet. The ICMR recommended dietary allowances of green leafy vegetables for adult women is 100g/day and men are 40g/day while for school children above 10 years it is 50g/day. Greens are rich in vitamins and minerals essential for healthy functioning of organs of body. Amaranth, beet leaf, spinach, fenugreek, etc., are the major leaf vegetables grown in India. In addition, a number of under-utilized annual crops are also grown as leaf vegetables in specific regions. Tender stems and leaves of a number of perennial crops are rich sources of vitamins and minerals and are used for cooking.

10.1. Amaranth (Amaranthus sp)

Amaranth is the most common leaf vegetable grown in India. Amarnath is an annual herb with erect growth and scarce to profusely branching habit. Stem is succulent and green or purple or mixed shades of these two. There are two sections in Amaranthus, viz., Amaranthus and Blitopsis. Majority of leaf cultivars grown in India belong to Amaranthus tricolor. Among the several kinds of greens Amaranthus occupy a special place because it has a large number of species grown in one or the other part of country.

Some of the important improved varieties released are CO-2 and CO-5 from TNAU, Coimbatore, Pusa Kiran, Pusa Kirti and Pusa Lal Choulia from IARI, New Delhi, Arka Arunima and Arka Suguna from IIHR, Bangalore. Amaranth are popular all over India by different names. While in northern parts it is popularly known as choulia, in south it is popularly called as keerai or cheera or koora or soppa. The general composition of amaranth is given below:

ABSTRACT

Green packaging is a technique used to develop sustainable and eco-friendly packaging materials. In this review paper we have examined the data currently available on the use of plant by-products and plant extract in the development of green packaging. The use of plant fibres is especially beneficial because they often contain a high concentration of bioactive compounds. These compounds lend a preservative effect to the packaging material. Further we have also discussed the degradability of such packaging and the additives which need to be added in order to enhance their utility. Lastly, we have examined the possible applications of green packaging in the food industry.

Keywords:GreenPackaging,Plantby-products,Fruitfibres,Biodegradability, Bioactive compounds, Nanocomposites, Renewable resources, Biopolymers

Introduction

Rice (Oryza sativa L.) is the vital cereal crop, probably the oldest cultivated grain crop, produced under varied ecosystems is consumed as the primary source of food by the billions of people throughout the world covering 9% of total arable land among world. India is one of the top leading countries in the entire world in case of both production and consumption of rice. Rice is cultivated in 43.86 m ha geographical area of the country producing 115.6 million tons (2018- 2019) of rice. It is produced in various ecosystems throughout the country under diverse climatic and soil condition but the productivity is much lower as compared to other countries. According to Pandey et al. (2006), the average loss of rice production during drought years in major rainfed rice grown states like Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand and Odisha was found to be 30 percent of the annual production in case of non-drought years.

ABSTRACT

The global market for baked products has reached up to $495 billion in the year 2019. It is estimated that its value will reach up to $580 billion by the end of 2025 with a growth rate of 2.7 % between 2020 to 2025. Ovens are operated with the help of LPG/diesel/electricity. The hybrid ovens can give higher energy efficiency along with targeted quality parameters. The previous data such as oven temperature, heat supplied per unit time, the moisture content and variety of the raw material used can be provided to a specific computer programme. The heat recovering unit is a unit which captures the escaping hot air and the same may be reused by pumping the hot air to the front of the oven to preheat the incoming cold air. The biogas can be generated from the bakery waste. There will be 45 % or more methane production from bread and biscuit waste in the retention time of about 12 to 55 days in a biogas plant. To make the bakery fully operated on green technology, solar renewable energy can also be utilized.

Abstract

Water scarce state Rajasthan is without efficient and effective management. Water, when at surface is cheaper and like free commodity to use. Most of it gets evaporated rapidly due to aridity. There is no water during summers and drought years. This is now critical time to rethink and review our planning and policies and make it ground water oriented instead of completely surface water based. Ground water management should be the thrust area and key issue. There is need to conserve andharvest each drop ofwater especially for recharge to ground water. Utilize the augmented ground water resources as crisis management during long dry spells. Also, enforcement of regulatory measures, creating awareness among masses and participatory approach ofmanagement are the key factors for ensuring sustainable availability of water resources.

Introduction

Rice plays a unique role in providing food to the majority of the world population. Rice is the most widely consumed food for nearly three-fourths of the population in India. Now a days scented rice is getting higher market price than normal rice varieties. Black Scented rice is commonly considered as forbidden rice. Different researches proved that black Scented rice is one of the “super food” of the world. Black Scented rice is consumed in various ways like puddings, pulao, bread, etc in different festivals and during important ceremonies. Mostly this crop is prone to lodging but resistance to infestation by insect and pest. Works done in India and abroad indicates that the particular method of establishment, adequate level of nitrogen and a particular time of application of nitrogenous fertilizer can enhance productivity. Nitrogen is the main nutrient that determines rice yield, due to its role in the photosynthesis, biomass accumulation and, spikelet formation (Hasegawa et al., 1994; Yoshida et al., 2006).

The term growth as applied to higher organisms such as animals commonly is concerned with increase in protoplasmic mass and does apply to reproduction or to increase in number. In microbiology the term refers to increase in the number of organisms. Bacteria increase in number by a process of simple binary fission. Each cell increase in size and redivide into two similar cells. Each of the divide cells may in turn divide to become two cells. Each division produces what is termed as new generation of cells, theoretically there are 2,4,8,16,32,64,128,256 cells in the 2,3,4,5,6,7,8,& 9th generation, this is known as logarithmic growth – the population doubles with each successive generation. Under favourable conditions, bacteria produce generation within 15min. Under unfavourable conditions 24 hours of more may be needed for each generation. Generation time for E.coli is 17 to 20 minutes.

Guava (Psidium guajava. L), a highly nutritious fruit very popular as poor man’s apple. Guava belongs to the family Myrtaceae. Guava is native to tropical America and is found growing wild from Mexico to Peru. Spaniards introduced guava in Phillippinnes and the Portuguese in India. Besides India, it also grown in Sri Lanka, Hawaiian Islandsm and Cuba. Guava had been introduced in India by Portuguese in 17^th century, and ever since it is an important fruit crop of India. In many countries it has been spread by birds, where it has been naturalized long back. In India it is cultivated in the plains in almost all the states but the major guava growing states are Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, West Bengal, Punjab, Karnatak, Andhra Pradesh, Odisha, Tamil Nadu, Chhatisgarh.

Cultivars: Allahabad Safeda, Lucknow-49, Chittidar, Nagapur Seedless, Bangalore, Dharwar, Akra Mridula, Arka Amulya, Harijha, Hafshi, Allahabad Surkha CISHG1, CISH-G2, CISH-G-3, Harija, Baruipur, etc.

Uses

Guava fruit is relished when mature or ripe and freshly plucked from the tree. Excellent salad and pudding are prepared from the shell of the ripe fruit. Ripe and unripe juicy fruits are eaten fresh. The fruits after removal of seeds, are used for preparing jam, jelly, paste, juice and nectar. It is also canned in sugars syrup and made into fruit butter. In some countries, the leaves are used for treating diarrhea and also for dyeing and tanning.

Introduction

The International Organization for Standardization (ISO) is a global federation of national standards bodies. Its primary goal is to promote the development of standardization and related activities worldwide, thereby facilitating the international exchange of goods and services. Additionally, ISO focuses on fostering cooperation in intellectual, scientific, technological, and economic fields. The outcomes of ISO’s technical work are published as International Standards.

ISO 9000 The

ISO 9000 family of standards represents an international consensus on good management practices, aiming to ensure that organizations consistently deliver products or services that meet clients’ quality requirements. These practices are condensed into standardized requirements for a quality management system, applicable regardless of the organization’s nature, size, or whether it operates in the private or public sector. The ISO 9000 standards family includes: