eChapters

Introduction

Seasonal or annual fluctuation in weather patterns is termed as climate variability. However, climate change is a change in the mean state of weather statistic over three decades of time period. Climate change is exacerbating the challenges faced by the agriculture as well as horticulture sector. For last 10 years, Asia is facing the serious threats from climate change and variability such as tsunami, f loods and droughts. Extreme events are expected to have large negative impacts on crop productivity. The rise in temperature and reduction in rainfall under semi-arid environments are likely to reduce production of fruits, vegetables and flowers in the coming 20 years. The production and quality of fresh fruit and vegetable crops can be directly and indirectly affected by exposure to high temperatures and elevated levels of carbon dioxide and ozone. The rise in atmospheric CO2 levels due to global climate change and horticultural practices has both direct and indirect effects on secondary metabolite synthesis in plants.

Abstract

Four bread wheat varieties (PBW-138, PBW-299, PBW-343 and PBW-373), two of durum wheat (PDW-215 and PDW-233) and two of triticale (TL-419 and TL-1210) were milled to obtain 70 percent extraction flour.  The grains and the flour samples of all the varieties were evaluated for proximate composition, rheological properties and pretzel making. Physical properties of durum wheat were better followed by bread wheat and triticale. Durum wheat were harder, had higher grain weight than bread wheat and triticale.  Protein, ash, fat, total sugars and enzyme activity were higher in triticale flour than bread and durum wheat flours while durum flour had higher pigments (ppm, b-carotene). Bread wheat flour was intermediate between durum and triticale flours with respect to fineness. Rheological studies revealed triticale flour to be the weakest flour. Pretzels prepared by using optimized recipe and method revealed PBW-343 and PBW-373 best for pretzel making.

Introduction

Food ingredients sector is indicating ample prospects for growth. The segment is an obligatory element for the growth of the food and beverage sector. These ingredients are also driving the development of the healthy functional foods industry to increase by 20% growth annually. Innovation in the food and beverage market, especially in the processed food domain, has created innumerable opportunities for new product development in the ingredients market as well. The segment is driven by the growing food processing industry and India is emerging as ingredients bowl of the future. Additionally, growing urbanization coupled with industrialization and changing lifestyles have led to growing demand for convenient food that offers health benefits, over and above the basic nutritional benefits of the foodstuff. There are nearly 10 to 15 broad classes of ingredients that include the very basic ingredients as well as certain value added ingredients that have niche applications. Key ingredients are preservatives, flavours, colours, hydrocolloids/stabilizers, emulsifiers, artificial sweeteners and value added health food ingredients such as omega-3-fatty acids prebiotics, probiotics etc. Until recently, there has been limited research into functional foods in meats, while functional foods in the dairy sector have been developed to a high degree. But meat is less allergenic than many other foods and much more research into the development and marketing of novel functional meat products is required. Such meat products would open up a new market for the meat industry. Nutraceutical and functional food industry is a very vibrant industry today with the claims and a clear mandate of health, wellness and prevention of diseases as one of its main goals.

Abstract

The demand for the food for ever increasing population is always continuous, but the production is limited to specific seasons. Therefore the food grains have to be stored for sometimes. Grain is a living biological material and therefore storage structures should be suitably designed to protect them from the ravages of pests, rodents and micro-organisms. However, the storage losses account for a major portion which can be reduced to considerable extent if proper care is done. The faulty design, poor maintenance and limited knowledge of the farmers concerning storage technology have greatly added to the spoilage of the food grains during storage. Sometimes the foods if not properly stored may be edible but it may lose the essential vitamins and minerals, thus their nutritive value has been lost. There is a major requirement of a good storage structure. Various food grain storage structures (small and large scale) are described.

Introduction

Hippocrate, an ancient physician, a great thinker and also often referred as father of medicine, for the first time conceive the idea nearly 2,500 years ago that a disease is caused due to natural factors such as environmental factors, diet, and living habits. He advocated the secret of healthy living in healthy food in his famous quote “Let food be thy medicine and medicine be thy food”. But unfortunately, this wisdom about food has faded with the time and we became dependent on synthetic medicines and drugs for even life style disorders. In the last century, research advancement in the field of food science and nutrition established food not only as a source of nutrition but also a source of active food components that aid specific functions and rejuvenated the Hippocrates concept. According to the Department of Health and Human Services, USA, daily diet of a person, plays a crucial role in 5 of 10 diseases which are the leading causes of death, such as diabetes (noninsulin dependent or type 2), stroke, coronary heart disease (CHD), specific type of cancer, and atherosclerosis. In the mid-1980s, term “functional food” was introduce in Japan and defined as food that contain active components either from plant or animal origin and provide physiological benefits in addition to the basic nutritional needs.

Abstract

Grains in present context are food grains. The PFA Act includes cereals, millets, and pulses in food grains. At times, seeds of certain oilseeds like soybean are also referred to in the discussion of food grains. Grains have been cultivated for thousands of years. We have Grain Standards as established by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO), which are considered as International Standards. Another source is Codex Alimentarius Commission (Codex) under the aegis of FAO (UN), which operates a Committee to formulate standards that are referred to as Codex Standards. Many countries have a National Standards Institution, which develops National Standards for their main grain crops and other commodities and issues specifications along with methods of testing and analysis. Several countries, which are in developing status, adopt or modify international standards into their national system. The Grain Standards have been evolved and established for a variety of purposes but primarily to grade produce in agricultural marketing largely to facilitate the movement of grain, provide both sellers and buyers with guidelines to support financial transactions, and ensure that the produce will meet up with end-use requirements, or, increasingly to protect the consumers.

Abstract

Chitin has been ranked at second position after cellulose as the most abundant natural biopolymer. Chitin has similar chemical structure to that of cellulose with 2-acetamido-2-deoxy-b-d-glucose (NAG) monomers attached via ß (1–>4) linkages. Chitosan is the deacetylated (to varying degrees) form of chitin, which, unlike chitin, is soluble in acidic solutions. Therefore, Chitosan, a copolymer of glucosamine and N-acetyl glucosamine, is amongst the most copious biopolymers on earth and finds wide range of biomedical and industrial applications. It has been approved in 1983 by USDA as a feed additive. Chitin basically is obtained from prawn/crab shells and chemical treatment of chitin produces chitosan. Since supplies of seafood waste are seasonable and variable, so fungi can be used as alternative source for chitosan. The unique physicochemical properties of chitosan provide great potential of its utilization in food industry especially dairy industry such as production of dairy products, dairy waste water treatment, extension of shelf life of dairy products etc. In recent years, exotic synthetic compounds are losing their appeal, thus application of chitinous products in dairy as well as processing aids has received considerable attention. The modified chitosan with greater functional properties has increased application in different dairy foods. This chapter focuses on the fundamental uses of chitosan and their derivatives in a variety of dairy industry applications.

Abstract

Consumers increased response to new products with high sensory, organoleptic and nutritional potentials has impelled a search for new substitutes to processing methods. For several years, thermal processing was the main technology for producing safe products with long shelf lives, although in most cases losses of fresh flavors, vitamins, and some physicochemical characteristics were the price of safety and long-term stability. Pulsed electric field (PEF) processing as a non- thermal technique has been proven to inactivate microorganisms with minimal losses of flavor and food quality, possibly making it the answer to present-day consumer demands. In addition, the low processing temperatures used in this non- thermal technology allow the process to be nutrient preserving, energy efficient, which translates into lower costs and fewer environmental impacts. In this chapter, the the configuration of various PEF equipment, their electric configuration and recent application of this technique in processing of foods have been discussed in detail.

Homogenization is now a widely used industrial process in dairy production, essential for stabilizing milk and other liquid dairy products. Its main purpose is to prevent fat from separating out of the milk, ensuring a smooth, consistent, and uniform product. Milk is a complex emulsion comprising water, fat, proteins, carbohydrates, minerals, and vitamins. Among these constituents, fat plays a critical role in determining the texture, flavor, and overall sensory quality of milk and dairy products. In its natural state, milk fat exists in the form of globules of varying sizes, surrounded by a thin membrane that stabilizes them in the aqueous phase. These fat globules typically range in size from 2 to 10 μm and have a lower density than the surrounding water-based phase of milk. This difference in density causes the fat globules to rise and form a cream layer when milk is left undisturbed, leading to an uneven texture and separation during storage.
Homogenization is a mechanical process applied to milk to modify fat globules by forcing the milk under high pressure through a tiny orifice. This reduces the average size of the fat globules while increasing their number and surface area. Practically, this greatly minimizes the tendency of fat globules to rise and form a cream layer. The enhanced stability of homogenized milk is due to three key factors: the reduction in the average diameter of fat globules, as described by Stokes’ Law, which slows their upward movement; the uniformity in size distribution, which ensures globules rise at similar speeds, preventing clustering; and the increased density of fat globules caused by the adsorption of a protein membrane, bringing their density closer to that of the surrounding liquid. Additionally, heat pasteurization complements homogenization by breaking down the cryo-globulin complex, which otherwise promotes clustering and cream formation.
The smaller and uniformly dispersed fat globules create a smoother, creamier texture and enhance the mouthfeel. This process also contributes to the visual appeal of milk, making it appear whiter and more uniform. Homogenization is, therefore, an essential step in modern dairy processing, ensuring the stability, quality, and consistency of milk and other dairy products, while addressing the challenges posed by the inherent properties of milk fat and its lower density.

Introduction
The addition of sugar in foods acts as a preservative when its concentration is above 66%. It absorbs most of the available water and restricts the availability of moisture required for the growth of microorganisms. Sugar adds value to the product by imparting sweetness as well as body to these products. When sugar is boiled with acid and fruits, it is hydrolysed into glucose and fructose, the degree of inversion depending upon the pH and duration of boiling. Because of the inversion of sucrose, a mixture of sucrose, glucose and fructose is found in products like jam, jelly, marmalade, preserves and candies.
Jams, jellies and marmalades constitute an important class of fruit products preserved by using sugar as the method of preservation. Apple jam, mango jam, pineapple jam, strawberry jam and mixed fruit jam prepared by using the pulp of two or more fruits are quite common. Similarly, guava jelly and orange marmalade are also examples of such products.
A fruit preserve is made from properly matured fruit by cooking it whole or in the form of large pieces in heavy sugar syrup, till it becomes tender and transparent. A fruit impregnated with cane sugar and glucose, followed by subsequent draining and drying is called a candied fruit (Fruit candy) e.g. petha candy, ginger candy. While candied fruit covered or coated with a thin transparent coating of sugar, which imparts to it a glossy appearance is referred to as a glazed fruit. When candied fruit is coated with sugar crystals either by rolling it in powdered sugar or by allowing the sugar crystals from glucose syrup to deposit on it, it becomes a crystallized fruit (Crystallized Candy). The use of high concentrations of sugar in these products acts as a preservative. Products like Petha candy, aonla preserve, candied citrus peels, ginger candy, ginger in syrup, bael, pineapple and carrot preserve are the commercial products in this category.

Definition

Packaging is the science, art, and technology of enclosing or protecting products for distribution, storage, sale, and use. Packaging also refers to the process of design, evaluation, and production of packages. Food packaging is packaging for food. It requires protection, tampering resistance, and special physical, chemical, or biological needs. It also shows the product that is labeled to show any nutrition information on the food being consumed

Packaging may be defined as co-ordinated system of preparing foods for transport, distribution, storage, retailing and their use. It is also a means of ensuring safe delivery of goods to the consumer in sound condition without affecting adversely the quality of the product packed in it at a reasonable cost. Packaging thus has as “techno-economic function” aimed at maintaining the quality of food stuff packed, with a view to retain the quality for a reasonable period.

Packaging plays a vital and dominant role in marketing, in maintaining quality and in preserving the food.

Consequent to the increase in the consumer awareness of the healthy hazards, which may be posed by different types of packaging material. It becomes inevitable for the packers to use better quality, hygienic packaging material which could retain the quality of the product for a longer time without posing any health hazard. The choice of a suitable packaging becomes all the more necessary for a number of factors like physico-chemical characters and acceptability of the commodities packed in any packaging material. Apart from this the package should be of the right shape and size and must attract the consumer's eye which could offer an absolute confidence regarding the wholesomeness of the products pack in it.

1. Introduction

Refrigeration may be defined as the process of achieving and maintaining a temperature below that of the surroundings. The aim being to cool some product or space to the required temperature. Refrigerated system or a room system is maintained at a temperature which is lower than the atmospheric temperature. Due to higher temperature of atmosphere, heat enters the system. To keep the temperature of the system constant, heat must be removed continuously from the system. Heat removed must be equal to the heat transferred to the system. One of the most important applications of refrigeration has been the preservation of perishable food products by storing them at low temperatures. Refrigeration systems are also used extensively for providing thermal comfort to human beings by means of air conditioning.

1. Introduction

Cleaning and grading are the first and vital post harvest operations undertaken to remove foreign and undesirable materials such as crop seed, chaff, mud, stones, straws, immature grains, dust, husk and even iron and steel particles from grains as well as fruits and vegetables and to separate the products into various fractions. Generally, the hand threshing and the traditional handling used in most developing countries cause a larger percentage of foreign matter with these crops. Thus, more cleaning is required. Cleaning is essentially a separation process, in which some difference in physical properties of the contaminants and the food units is exploited. 

1. Introduction

Size reduction is applied to all the ways in which particles of the solids are cut or broken into smaller pieces. Size reduction operation of solids is referred to as 'Comminution", some of the common comminutive processes are - crushing, grinding, milling, mincing, and dicing. Breaking down of large sized particles of food substances into smaller particles is a common unit operation in many food processes, e.g. wheat flour, turmeric powder, spices, etc. are mostly used in powdered form. Some ofthe common objectives that are fulfilled by size reduction are:

1. Introduction
Quality makes the product what it is. Quality is how well a product or service satisfies the needs of the customer. Quality can be interpreted in several ways, such as conformance to the standards, meeting customers’ preference/ satisfaction for desired quality attributes, degree of excellence, zero-defect products, etc.
The quality standard of fresh and processed fruit or vegetable products varies with their intended use. For marketing purposes, size, attractiveness, maturity, organoleptic quality and freedom from defects are to be kept in mind in fresh and processed fruit or vegetable products. During the processing of fruit or vegetables into value-added products, colour, flavour and texture also become important. Therefore, Quality is defined in different ways, such as:
i. Quality is a measure of the degree of excellence or degree of acceptability by the consumer.
ii. Quality is also defined as the combination of attributes or characteristics of the products that have significance in determining the degree of acceptability of the product to a user.

In spite of big potential of the largest livestock population in the world, meat industry in India is still in nascent stage. It is a business of those who are not trained and very much literate. The industry is primarily based on the raw material that is not reared for meat purpose but serves the secondary role after passing their viable life in primary field. The industry is also facing problem of social prejudice and meat is taboo for certain communities. But scenario is now changing and people are coming forward to organise the sector. Now the society is accepting the facts that meat is an only source of cheap and nutritious food to million of people in India and the good source of animal protein for large segment of Indian population, particularly landless, small and marginal farmers.

India ranks fifth in the world meat production with the annual meat production of about 6.3 million tones which is 2.21% percent of world meat production. In the last two decades meat industry in India has grown @ 4.5% whereas, during the last five years, this segment has been growing very fast at the rate of 27% annually. It has a good future if given proper attention by the Government and Private Entrepreneurs. In total meat production, share of cattle is 17.34%, buffalo 23.3%, sheep 4.6%, goat 9.4%, pigs 5.3%, poultry 36.6% and others 3.4%. The share of various meat types in total Indian meat production accounts buffalo meat 1.5 million tones, beef 1.28 million tones, mutton 0.24 million tones, chevon 0.53 million tones, pork 0.50 million tones, chicken meat 2.20 million tones and duck meat 0.07 million tones. To produce the above quantities, the extraction or slaughter rates in cattle are about 7.9%, buffaloes 11.1%, sheep 47.9%, goat 37.9%, pigs 88.9% and poultry 73.6%. In the world total meat production Indian cattle meat shares 13.1%, buffalo meat 55.8%, mutton 5.7% and chevon 14.9%. However, India is having world’s 15.0% (210 million) cattle, 57.0 %( 111 million) buffaloes, 7.0 %( 74 million) sheep, 17.0 %( 154 million) goat and 1.5% pigs. Overall contribution of meat sector in total output of Livestock sector was Rs 25984 crores in the year 2004-2005.

1. Introduction

To maintain good quality of product & shelf life, it is very important & essential to concentrate on Cleaning & Sanitization process at plant level & to follow the CIP process properly. An attempt is made in the current chapter to present details pertaining to cleaning in fluid milk and milk products manufacturing & processing plants. This chapter will be helpful the students of Food & Dairy Technology for better understanding the process milk plant cleaning & sanitation technology.

The following equipment and types of machinery are generally used in the food processing plant which specifically deals with the processing of fruits and vegetables;
I. Machinery/Equipment for general purpose
1. Weighing Balance (Precision balance for chemical and heavy duty for fruits/raw material) 1-500mg, 1kg,10kg,100kg.
2. Cutting Knife (SS), coring knife, pitting knife, peeling knife
3. Abrasive peeler (carborundum crystal) for potato,carrot,ginger etc.,
4. Working Table with Stainless steel/Aluminium top
5. Buckets/ Water tubs/jugs (Plastic/Stainless Steel)
6. LPG/Diesel Bhatti/furnace/Stove
7. Utensils/Bhagona (Aluminium /Stainless steel); 10, 50,100 kg capacity
8. Spoon, ladle (heavy duty), grater,`
9. Belt conveyors

Milk

Importance

Milk contains approximately 86% water, 4.7% sugar (lactose), 4.1% fat, 4.2% protein and 1% minerals. It supports the growth of micro-organisms and thus is prone to contamination. The purpose of milking a dairy cow is to obtain milk that is fit for human consumption. Milk from the udder of a healthy cow contains very few bacteria and to ensure that it remains fresh for long it should be handled under conditions of good hygiene. Unclean milk can be a source of disease to the consumer, rejected at the market and so is a loss to the farmer, does not keep for long and is not good for processing.

1. Introduction

Thermal processing used extensively in the food industry for preservation and shelf life extension of the products (Arnoldi 2001). Heat treatments remain most important in food processing unit operations, not only to achieve desirable changes in eating quality but also for preservative effect by inactivation of microorganisms, destruction of enzymes and insects.Heat is applied in various unit operations through adifferent mode of heat transfer such as conduction, convection, and radiations.