eChapters

INTRODUCTION

It is well accepted that the climatic changes also influence the geomorphic process efficiency and landform development (Ahamad, 1985). Glaciation, sea level changes, flooding and many other geo- environmental events are related with global and regional climatic changes along with tectonic and other non-tectonic factors like natural vegetation, soil, organic development etc. Considering the role of climate on landform development and dynamics of the Late Quaternary climate, a climato-geomorphic study was conducted on the coastal and paleo-coastal areas of the Bengal Basin namely-lower Western (West Bengal coast) and Eastern (Tripura Paleo-coastal Fold Belt Province) Geo-provences. The main objectives of the study were to investigate (i) Development of the landforms during Late Quaternary period with sea level changes and (ii) Climatological influences on the landform modifications.

    1.    Cereals are grown over 73% of the total world harvested area and contribute over 60% of the world food production providing dietary fibre, proteins, energy, minerals,  vitamins, b-glucans , Oligosaccharides, such as lactulose, fructo-oligosaccharides, transgalacto-oligosaccharides

    2.    Finger millet is a potent source of antioxidants and has potent radical-scavenging activity that is higher than that of wheat, rice, and other millets; these results corresponded to their phenolic content

    3.    The brown or red variety of finger millet, which is commonly available, had higher activity (94%) than the white variety (4%) using the DPPH method.

    4.    Most of the herbal plant polyphenols are known to have multi functional properties such as reducing agents, hydrogen donating antioxidants and singlet oxygen quenchers and flavonoids and their derivatives are the largest and most important group of polyphenols.

    5.    Phytosterols are found in plant foods and are structurally and functionally analogous to cholesterol in vertebrate animals. a-sitosterol, campesterol and stigmasterol are the most commonly occurring phytosterols and constitute 95% of total phytosterols in the diet.

Meat and meat products industry is a sunrise industry in India having huge potential for upliftment of agricultural economy. India is the second largest food producer in world but the contribution of meat industry is still confined to localized handlers. So to uplift industry basic infrastructure, food chains, food security and safety along with standards and laws formulation and their implementations is today’s need. Standards are carefully drawn specifications with respect to a food product. These standards are mainly of three types i.e. government, trade and research standards. Government standards are formulated by the government of India or state government and also have the power to implement these standards while trade standards are implied by the individual company. Research standards are formulated on the basis of comparative study of the products by the researchers. Laws are the legislations enforced by the organisations either government or by autonomous bodies made under the constitutional acts of the country. At present numerous standards and laws are in existence in individual country or at international level. The need is to harmonize them as per the industry and trade requirement.

Domestic Organizations Involved in Standards and Laws Formulation

For the formulation, enforcement and control of standards and legislations at domestic level various organizations are of prime value. Some of these are:

Facilities required for buffalo, sheep and goat slaughterhouses
1. Lairage
2. Large enough slaughterhouse area-
• Separate area for pig slaughtering
• Slaughter line and area for operations such as singeing, depilation, scraping should be demarcated by a high wall of at least 3 m high or by an open space of 5 m width
3. For stomachs and intestines emptying and cleaning, there should be one dedicated room
4. Separate rooms for handling guts and tripe
5. Fat and hides, hooves and horns should be stored in separate rooms
6. Accommodation for sick or suspected animals; detained meat or seized meat
7. Chilling/refrigeration room
8. Room for veterinary services
9. Provisions for lavatories, wash basins, changing rooms, and showers
10. Facilities for veterinary inspection
11. Entry and exit of slaughterhouse should have control mechanism
12. Separation of clean and unclean area
13. Waterproof flooring of room where meat is processed
14. Provision for steam exhaustion and sufficient ventilation
15. Sufficient artificial or natural lighting
16. Adequate potable water supply
17. Adequate hot potable water supply
18. Effluent treatment plant (ETP)

2.1 Introduction
Typically, milk is obtained from domesticated animals (water buffalo, sheep, or goats) under farm-level circumstances. In smaller amounts, it can be utilized directly after boiling; but, in larger quantities, processing and storage are crucial. Farms provide their milk to milk vendors, who collect it in cans and deliver it to chilling centers or dairy processing plants. After milking, the milk is quickly chilled to 4°C, or it should be pasteurized and packaged within two hours. Before being marketed, milk must be pasteurized, with the exception of products that initially require raw milk or those that require direct application of heat, such as desiccation or another heating process. The market for novel goods and procedures is steadily growing. The main causes include rising disposable incomes, shifting consumer attitudes and concerns about safety, hygiene, and nutrition, and the entry of foreign companies.

2.2 Dairy plant requirements
The plant should be situated in an area free from waterlogging, well- protected, easily accessible by car, and equipped with a plentiful supply of drinkable water, a facility for disposing of waste, and energy.

2.2.1 Infrastructure requirements
For the receiving of milk, chilling, storing, separating, pasteurizing, homogenizing, packaging, and product manufacturing, civil works with appropriate space and machinery are needed. provisions for utility units such steam generation and refrigeration control, storage, and quality control. When choosing metals for equipment in dairy plants, look for materials that are nontoxic, tainting, corrosion-resistant, easy to clean, affordable, and long-lasting. Generally, alloys made of aluminum or 18:8 stainless steel are recommended.

1. INTRODUCTION

Leaf and soil analysis are the tools to estimate the fertilizer needs of fruit crops. Leaves are selected for analysis because:

• Leaf is the principal site of plant metabolism.
• The changes in nutrient supply are reflected in the leaf composition.
• The changes are more pronounced at certain stages of development.
• The concentration of nutrients in the leaf at specific growth stages are related to performance of the plant.

Leavening agents produce carbon dioxide which helps to give characteristic structure to bread cakes and biscuits etc. In the case of cakes, leavening is produced by air entrapped in the dough due to the presence of egg in the mix. The important groups of leavening agent’s are l. baker’s yeast 2. Chemical leavening agents

8.1 Key legal statutes and regulatory foundations
Various policy measures were also undertaken by the Government of India in due course of time. The Government of India enacted four science policies after gaining independence, i.e. Scientific Policy Resolution (1958), Technology Policy Statement (1983), Science and Technology Policy (2003) and Science Technology and Innovation Policy (2013). The 1983 Technology Policy Statement possessed a simple goal of creating indigenous technology and boosting efficient absorption and adaptation of imported technologies suited to the nation’s priorities and. The Technology Policy Statement of 1983 was followed up through the establishment of the Technology Information Forecasting and Assessment Council (TIFAC), an autonomous organization entirely owned by the Government of India under the Department of Science and Technology during 1988. TIFAC also offers some funding and supports development and commercialization of technologies through the home-grown technology scheme, among its other operations. The Technology Development Board Act (1995) was also a significant policy move of the government in the same direction. Also in recent times, the Government of India also unveiled its own National IPR Policy 2016 with the motto cum slogan “Creative India, Innovative India”. In addition, the policy is aligned to a number of other schemes of the Indian Government like “Make in India”, “Atal Innovation Mission”, “Start-Up India” and “Stand-Up India”, all aimed at encouraging creativity, innovation and entrepreneurship in the nation.

Introduction

Export of quality seafood products is important to have a success in international marketing. Exporters must be quality conscious and the Governments must insist on quality control and inspection. The seafood export industry in India is over 50 years old. Seafood contributes 10% of the total exports and nearly 20% of all agricultural exports. In the year 2022-23, India exported 17,35,286 MT seafood to more than 100 countries worth US $8.09 billion equivalent to Rs. 63,969.14 crore. There are over 150 fish processing facilities approved by the European Union out of the existing 350 processing facilities. The Export Inspection Council and the Marine Products Export Development Authority are working very closely with the fish processing industries for the growth of seafood exports.

The Government of India enacted the Export (Quality Control and Inspection) Act, 1963 for the development of export trade through quality control and inspection. It empowers the Government to notify the products intended for compulsory quality control and inspection prior to their export. It specifies the type of quality control required for the notified products. It recognizes standard specifications for a notified product. It prohibits the export of notified products that are not complying with export conditions. It creates a machinery for quality control and take measures to protect markets for Indian commodities. As the first step, Export Inspection Council (the Council) was established on 1st January 1964 for implementation of various provisions of the Export (Quality Control & Inspection) Act, 1963.

Leguminous vegetables include peas, French bean, Lima bean, broad bean, cowpea, hyacinth bean, winged bean etc. They belong to the family Fabaceae (Syn. Leguminosae). These are cultivated either as sole crop is sometimes as intercrop. In some areas they are used in backyard cultivation also. Most of them are short duration crops and are self pollinated.

8.1. Peas (Pisum sativum L.)

The pea (Pisum sativum L.) is a very common nutritioius vegetable grown in cool season throughout the world. It belongs to the family Fabaceae (Syn. Leguminaceae) and genus Pisum. A pea is most commonly the small spherical seed or the seedpod of the pod fruit Pisum sativum L. The pea cultivars are grouped into several groups based on shape of seed, plant height, maturity and use of pods. This crop is cultivated for its tender and immature pods for use as vegetable and mature dry pods for use as a pulse. In both the cases the seeds are separated and used as vegetable or pulse. The central Asia is regarded as the place of origin for all legumes including pea. Based on the genetic diversity, Central Asia, the Near East, Abyssinia and the Mediterranean is considered to be its centre of Origin. Cultivated garden pea is not seen in wild state and it might have been originated from wild field pea or other related species. In India it widely cultivated states of Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Haryana, Punjab, Himachal Pradesh, Orissa and Karnataka. Followed by Madhya Pradesh, Himachal Pradesh, Assam and Jharkhand.

Cultivars/Varietie: Peas varieties are grouped based on maturity (early, mid season and late) plant height (Bush or dwarf, medium tall and tall). The major cultivars under cultivation in different parts of the country are Arkel, Bonneville, Harbhajan, FC-1, Arka Ajit, UN 53-6 (whole edible type), Jawahar Matar 1, Jawahar Matar 2, Jawahar Matar 3, Jawahar Matar 4, Jawahar Matar 5, Jawahar Peas 83, JP 4 (JM 6), JP 19, Lincoin, Mattar Ageta 6, Pantnagar Matar 2, Pant Uphar (IP 3), P 88, PRS 4,Ooty-1 and VL 3.

5.1. Introduction
The people of every nation would be healthier if they adopted healthier lifestyles. A Good nutrition, daily exercise and proper sleep are the base of healthy living. A healthy lifestyle denoted by fit, energetic and at minimize possibility for disease. According to WHO, Healthy living is a way of living that helps you enjoy more aspects of your life. It is a way of living that lowers the risk of being seriously ill or dying early. Health is not just about avoiding a disease or illness.
5.2. Concept of Health
According to WHO, Health is the state of complete physical, mental and social well being and not merely absence of disease or infirmity. The holistic approach of health is the individual’s health and lifestyle considering all four factors, physical, intellectual, emotional and social. It concern about the whole body and mind not just a part of the body and the symptoms of the problem. It will look at the lifestyle of the individual such as nutritional deficiencies, reason of stress and why there is a lack of good health and wellbeing. A holistic approach will engage the individual taking responsibility for their health and well-being. They do this by educating themselves and being active in maintaining and improving their health and well-being.
5.2.1. Positive Health
Positive Health is the scientific study of health assets. A “health asset” is a factor that construct stronger health, over and above risk factors for disease. Positive Health works to find which specific health assets produce longer, healthy life, and which health assets lower disease risk and health care costs. The aim is to strive for optimal health —beyond the mere absence of illness.

Introduction

The diverse cluster of naturally occurring organic compounds including fats, oils, fatty acids, waxes, phospholipids, eicosanoids, terpenes, steroids and fat soluble vitamins that do not prefer to interact with water but soluble in non-polar organic solvents like ether, chloroform, benzene, acetone, are called as lipids. The main functions of lipids in biological system include storage and transport of metabolic fuel, structural component of cell membranes, insulation & protection of vital organs from shock and carrier of fat soluble vitamins. Contradictory to proteins,lipids are not polymers in nature and are hydrophobic due to presence of a long hydrophobic chain. Apart from this, lipids also act as precursor molecules for several pigments, hormones and signaling molecules.

1.    A lipid is

(a) Insoluble in water but soluble in nonpolar solvents

(b) Insoluble in both water and nonpolar solvents

(b) Soluble in water but insoluble in nonpolar solvents

(d) None of the above

2.    Fats are

(a) Esters of fatty acid with glycerol

(b) Esters of fatty acid with long chain monohydroxy alcohols

(c) Both (a) and (b)

(d) Esters of fatty acid with alcohols

Litchi (Litchi chinensis Sonn.) is a popular subtropical evergreen fruit tree. The Litchi (lychee) is the most renowned of a group of edible fruits of the soap berry family, Sapindaceae. It is botanically designated Litchi chinensis Sonn. (Nephelium litchi Cambess) and widely known as litchi and regionally as lichi, lichee, laichi, leechee or lychee. Litchi is a tropical fruit tree native to southern China. It is also commonly found in Madagascar, India (Muzaffarpur), Bangladesh, Pakistan, southern Taiwan, northern Vietnam, Indonesia, Thailand, the Philippines, and Southern Africa. Great source of Vitamin C and potassium, it also contains phosphorous, calcium, magnesium and protein. The fruit is liked by everybody because of its excellent quality, attractive red colour and characteristics pleasant flavor.

Varieties

The varieties grown under different states are as below.

Bihar: Shahi, Rose Scented, China, Kasba, Purbi, Early Bedana, Late Bedana

Uttar Pradesh: Rose Scented, Dehradun, Calcuttia

West Bengal: Bombay Green, Kalyani Selection

Punjab: Muzaffarpur, Dehradun, Seedless, Late Bedana

1. Introduction Millet is a heterogeneous group of small-seeded cereal crops classified based on their morphology as major millet and minor millet. Little millet (Panicum sumatrense) are small millets generally categorized as minor millet cereal crops. It is a self-pollinated crop that belongs to the family Poaceae and subfamily Panicoideae with a chromosome number of 2n=36 (Nandini and Bhat, 2019). It is a traditional cereal grain crop widely produced in India, Pakistan, Sri Lanka and Western Myanmar. Little millet is widely cultivated in the tribal belt of Madhya Pradesh, Bihar, Chhattisgarh, Andhra Pradesh, and Tamil Nadu in India for food and feed (Ganapathy, 2017). Indigenously, it is commonly known as samai (Tamil), kutki (Hindi), savior same (Kannada), chama (Malayalam) (Table 1).

1.1 Introduction Millets are nutri-cereals that have been the oldest food since time immemorial and are decisively the first cereal grain to be used for domestic purposes. Millets generally include small seeded members of the Poaceae family globally used for food and fodder purposes. The word “millet” emanated from the French word “Mile” which means “thousand” signifying that a small quantity of millet may contain thousands of grains. Millets were erstwhile produced in marginal or degraded terrains with very low soil nutrients and semi-arid conditions with very little rainfall. After the green revolution, there was a shift away from millet in favour of wheat, rice, and maize as a result of more land becoming irrigated to alleviate extreme poverty and malnourishment in the country and to feed millions. Most of the millet crops possess the C4 photosynthetic pathway and are therefore able to withstand frequent changes due to environmental stresses. Consequently, millet production has declined and within a few decades post-green revolution, crops that were once eaten by every household were transformed into fodder crops. Millets are considered as ‘good for the planet crops’ as they take less to give more, due to such multi-faceted qualities millets are considered as miracle crops.

Dairy rearing is central to livelihoods and survival of millions of people of India. It is estimated that approximately 100 million people derive their live hood from dairy rearing as primary or secondary source of income. Dairy related activities help to maintain regular in flow of income for these households. Small farmers in India generate nearly half of their income from dairy and the value of cattle represents a significant part of their wealth, so the death of cattle poses a significant risk and affects farmers’ net worth and income.

a. Type of risks to dairy based livelihoods

Large animal’s are expensive and thus carry higher risk exposure. Dairy losses due to the disease, accident, theft, natural calamity can cause significant losses to these household. Sometimes owners are forced to sell their animals due to loss due to incurable disease/ disorder/ fodder and water scarcity and they are unable to rebuild their stock. Many times animal losses force them into poverty trap from where they are unable to recover.

Risks faced by dairy owner’s dairy dependent livelihoods can be classified into two broad categories

1. Introduction

Livestock meat and fish are rich sources of high-quality protein and other valuable nutrients such as polyunsaturated fatty acids, vitamins, and minerals and are an essential part of our healthy diet (Vladau et al., 2008; Mahmud et al., 2018; Mohanti et al., 2019; Mei et al., 2019). Food fraud and adulteration is an age-old distortive practice. The rising incidence of food contaminants and adulterants-induced health issues has challenged consumers to identify and consume safe livestock meat and fish products. Its significance has increased in recent years due to global trade, awareness among consumers, and sociopolitical issues.

Longan (Dimocarpus longan Lour), belongs to the family, Sapindaceae. It is a hardy subtropical fruit tree very similar to litchi in habit and appearance. The longan is native to southern China, in the provinces of Kwangtung, Kwangsi, Schezwan and Fukien. The longan is less important to the Chinese as an edible fruit, more widely used than the lychee in Oriental medicine. It is also now widely grown in Thailand, Hong Kong, Taiwan, Vietnam, Myanmar, Indonesia, Malyasia, USA, New Zealand and Australia. The longan was introduced into India in 1798. In India it is mainly grown in Western ghats, Assam and West Bengal.

Cultivars: Most important cultivars of major Longan growing areas of world are Ilao, Wai, and Fuhko No. 2.

Food Uses

Although longan is mainly used for dessert purpose. It can be dried, frozen or canned. Preserved longans are considered by many as superior to preserved litchi, the flavour being more delicate. Longans are much eaten fresh, out-of-hand, but some have maintained that the fruit is improved by cooking. In China, the majority are canned in sirup or dried. The canned fruits were regularly shipped from Shanghai to the United States in the past. Today, they are exported from Hong Kong and Taiwan.

The dried longan product is black, leathery and smoky in flavor and is mainly used to prepare an infusion drunk for refreshment. A liqueur is made by macerating the longan flesh in alcohol. (Morton, 1987).

The loquat, Eriobotrya japonica Lindl., (syn. Mespilus japonicus Thunb.), belongs to the rose family, Rosaceae. It is also called Japan, or Japanese plum and Japanese medlar. The loquat is indigenous to southeastern China and possibly southern Japan, though it may have been introduced into Japan in very early times. It is said to have been cultivated in Japan for over 1,000 years. Cultivation spread to India and southeast Asia, the medium altitudes of the East Indies, and Australia, New Zealand and South Africa. Chinese immigrants are assumed to have carried the loquat to Hawaii.

The loquat fruits are round, oval or pyriform, pale yellow to orange in colour and are borne in loose clusters. The flesh is firm, meaty or melting, deep orange in colour, juicy and sub acidic in flavour.

Cultivars/Varieties: There are two groups of loquat cultivars – Chinese and Japanese. The Chinese type are large, pyriform and deep orange in colour, while Japanese type is smaller, light coloured and sometimes slender in form. The well-known cultivars are California Advance, Tanaka, Thales, Pyriform, Golden yellow, Improved golden yellow, Pale yellow. Other named cultivars are Improved Pale yellow, Fire Ball, Large Round, Gold Nugget, Safeda and Mammoth.

Uses

Loquat is commonly eaten as a fresh fruit. Loquat can also be processed into several products like jam, jelly and chutney. Seeds are usually taken out from the fruits, otherwise they may impart a bitter taste. The fruits are also used in gelatin desserts or as pie-filling, or are chopped and cooked as a sauce. Loquats canned in syrup are exported from Taiwan. Some people prepare spiced loquats (with cloves, cinnamon, lemon and vinegar) in glass jars. The fruit is also made into jam and, when slightly underripe, has enough pectin to make jelly.