eChapters

1. INTRODUCTION

According to the Food, Drug and Cosmetic Act (1968) food is “an article that provides taste, aroma or nutritive value”. The term 'health food' is generally used to describe foods that are considered to be beneficial to health beyond a normal diet required for human nutrition. Though, the term is not precisely defined by any regulatory agencies such as the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) however, “Health food” is sometimes used as an umbrella term encompassing natural foods, organic foods, whole foods, and sometimes dietary supplements or may also refer to functional foods. The use of foods for promoting health and relieving symptoms is as old as the practice of phyto-medicine for treating or preventing various types of illness and have been documented in Hippocratic and Vedic texts and the canons of Traditional Chinese Medicine. Therefore, “Let food be thy medicine and medicine be thy food”, quoted by Hippocrates about 2,500 years ago, is certainly the tenet of today which is receiving overwhelming interest. In the recent years, rapid urbanization, industrialization, increase in per capita income etc. in developing countries like India, have resulted in dramatic lifestyle changes leading to lifestyle related diseases like coronary heart disease, obesity, diabetes, cancer and hypertension. The transition from a traditional to modern lifestyle, consumption of diets rich in fat and calories combined with a high level of mental stress has compounded the problem further.

The nutritional richness and the high biological value of dairy milk have made it an important constituent of the balanced human diet. It is associated with better growth, improved status of some micronutrients, cognitive performance, motor development and activity. It is composed of a mixture of nutritive components as well as other bioactive factors such as biogenic amines, conjugated linoleic acid (CLA), with relevant physiological benefits. The consumption of dairy milk and products exert a protective action in human health and have been confirmed in preventing several chronic conditions like cardiovascular diseases (CVDs), some forms of cancer, obesity, immunomodulation and diabetes (Pereira, 2014). The chemical composition of bovine milk consists of 87% water, 4% to 5% lactose, 3% protein, 3% to 4% fat, 0.8% minerals, and 0.1% vitamins (Pereira, 2014).

1. Composition of Milk Fat

Bovine milk contains about 3.5 to 5% total lipid, existing as emulsified globules 2 to 4 μm in diameter and coated with a membrane, casein. The composition of milk fat is somewhat complex. Triglycerides constitute approximately 98% of milk fat, which is found in the milk globule, with the remainder being made up of di- and monoglycerides, phospholipids, cerebrosides, cholesterol, vitamins, tocopherols, carotene, and flavor components. Phospholipids are about 0.5 to 1% of total lipids, and sterols are 0.2 to 0.5%. These are mostly located in the milk fat globule membrane (Jensen et al., 1991). Cholesterol is the major sterol at 10 to 20 mg/dL.

Maintaining the quality of fish begins with harvest and carries through the harvest-to- consumption chain. Careful handling of fish and shellfish while harvesting and during transport to the processing plant is critical if the high quality of the product is to be maintained. There are, however, several constraints on handling the fish; the important among them are the bacteriological, chemical and physical processes that cause degradation of fish. The surface of dead fish is an ideal growth habitat for bacteria and the end result of such activity is spoiled fish. Reduction of temperature can prevent the growth of many bacteria that cause the spoilage. Chemical breakdown due to oxidative and enzymatic reactions can lead to off odours and flavours and rancidity. Digestive enzymes can initiate decomposition in the dead fish. Physical factors can enhance the bacteriological or chemical processes: bruising, tearing, cutting etc. can expose fish muscle to more rapid bacteriological growth, cause internal bleeding which darkens the fillets and expose greater surface area for chemical oxidation.

Since fish is a highly perishable item of food, it has to be immediately processed to various products to preserve the quality and to increase the shelf life. Fish requires proper handling and preservation to increase its shelf life and retain its quality and nutritional attributes. The objective of handling, processing and preservation is to control or reduce the spoilage process so that the final product is wholesome and safe for the consumer. Fish and fishery products brought to market in a well-preserved condition will generally command higher prices, both at wholesale and retail levels, and thus give better returns to the fishing operation.

Low temperature preservation by chilling and freezing methods are widely practiced to maintain the quality and freshness of fish and fish products. Chilled storage method, i.e., keeping the fish in the unfrozen condition has only limited shelf life and it will vary between 4 and 20 days depending on the condition and species of fish. In frozen storage also the shelf life is restricted but it varies from few weeks to years. The various factors that affect the frozen storage shelf lives are condition of fish at the time of catch, handling, processing and product development, packaging and glazing of the product, freezing method adopted, frozen storage temperature, stacking methods and transportation techniques. These factors can be put together and can be termed as ‘Product, Processing and Packaging’ (PPP) and ‘Time Temperature Tolerance’ factors (TTT).

INTRODUCTION

Food is the basic need of human beings. It gets spoiled primarily due to microorganisms and enzymes. Energy is required for microbial growth and enzymatic reactions. At low temperature, the rate of biochemical reactions is slow resulting in prolonged storage life of food. It must have been observed long back that food could be stored for longer period without deterioration during the winter months. Since then this principle is being used to extend the storage life of foods. A sea change can be observed in development of low temperature preservation technology. It has travelled a long journey to reach this stage; however, a major break through took place in twentieth century. Low temperature technology is of two types; refrigeration and freezing. In refrigeration storage, water is in liquid phase and temperature is maintained above freezing point. In freezing technology, the food is stored below freezing point and water gets converted into ice. The former is short term preservation due to slow growth of microbes and lower enzymatic activity while the later is long time preservation due to inactivation of enzymes during blanching and inhibition of microbial activity due to unavailability of free water and much lower temperature. Low temperature preservation is widely accepted and is of commercially important in food supply chain.

Freezing : Freezing is a process where temperature of food (fruits, vegetable etc.) is lowered down considerably below freezing point so that the water present inside the food undergoes change in state from liquid to solid (ice) and gets frozen immediately eg Frozen Pea. Water is immobilized and solutes are concentrated to reduce the water activity.

Principles of preservation : Combination of low temperature, low water activity, and pre-treatments like blanching, dipping in sugar syrup etc. stop (reduce) the growth and activity of microorganisms.

Theory of freezing : Freezing takes place in two main steps

Low-temperature preservation is one of the most widely used physical approaches for extending food shelf life without seriously affecting quality. Reducing storage temperature slows microbial multiplication, enzyme activity and chemical deterioration, with inhibition increasing as temperature declines. Refrigeration maintains food above its freezing point, while freezing reduces temperature below zero and converts available water into ice. The chapter examines conventional refrigeration, advanced chilling, freezing, cryopreservation, superchilling and the influence of ice crystallisation on food quality. It explains how temperature, cooling rate and crystal size affect texture, nutritional retention and storage stability, while also addressing the limitations and quality changes associated with prolonged low-temperature storage.

Lozenges are solid preparations that contain one or more medicaments, usually in a flavored, sweetened base, that are intended to dissolve or disintegrate slowly in the mouth. They can be prepared by molding (gelatin and/or fused sucrose and sorbitol base) or by compression of sugar-based tablets. Molded lozenges are sometimes referred to as pastilles, whereas compressed lozenges may be referred to as troches. They are used for patients who cannot swallow solid oral dosage forms well as for medications designed to be released slowly to yield a constant level of drug in the oral cavity or to bathe the throat tissues in a solution of the drug. Lozenges historically have been used for the relief of minor sore throat pain and irritation and have been used extensively to deliver topical anaesthetics and antibacterial.

Advantages

1. It is easy to administer to both paediatric and geriatric patients.
2. It has a pleasant taste and will extend the time a quantity of drug remains in the oral cavity to elicit local activity.

Macaroni: Pasta made from semolina and shaped in the form of slender tubes (Plate 396).

Macaroni wheat: It is tetraploid wheat and is preferred for making macaroni, vermicelli etc.

Macaroon: A small cookie composed chiefly of egg whites, sugar, and ground almonds or coconut (Plate 397).

Mace: An aromatic spice consisting of the dried external fibrous covering of a nutmeg (Plate 398).

Mach number: It is a number representing the ratio of the speed of a body (flow velocity) to the speed of sound (sonic velocity) in a surrounding medium (as air).

Macroglobulin: A highly polymerized globulin of high molecular weight.

Macronutrient: A chemical element (as nitrogen, phosphorus, or potassium) of which relatively large quantities are essential to the growth and health of a plant or a substance (as protein or carbohydrate) essential in large amounts to the growth and health of an animal.

A number of quality management tools are being used in food processing industry. Often selection of such tools are tough as it involves several factors for decision-making. The problem of choice of quality management and tools can be solved by selection on the basis of the objective decision making process rather than on the opinion of the decision makers (Sukkarn and Thawesaengskulthai, 2015).

Since time immemorial when man used primitive tools and machines to carry his loads, to draw his water, to till his land and to fabricate his building materials, he has been faced with the prospect of maintaining these assets until such time as he considered their useful life to be ended. Maintenance is very important to extend the useful life of an asset. Maintenance is usually viewed only as a repair function. It is, however, “a combination of any actions carried out to retain an item in, or restore it to, an acceptance condition”. In fact maintenance keeps or ensures that the entire production system is kept reliable, productive and efficient. All departments of a production system may have been designed beautifully without giving due consideration to maintenance management. The end result is obvious. Organizations like the National Productivity Council and others are playing a vital role in propagating the importance of Maintenance Management of all assets of the organization. In fact, all organizations must be having some assets, and hence the need for proper maintenance and ‘physical assets management’ which is synonymous with the word ‘Tero-technology’.

SYNOPSIS

Vegetables are essential for well-balanced diet since they supply phytonutriceuticals. About 3 billion people in the world are malnourished due to imbalanced diets. Regular consumption of a vegetable rich diet has undeniable effects on health since they have been strongly associated with improvement of gastrointestinal health, good vision, and reduced risk of heart disease, stroke, chronic diseases such as diabetes, and some forms of cancer.

Introduction
Makkhan (Makhan) is an indigenous(desi) butter obtained by hand churning of dahi using wooden beater (mathani). It is traditional unsalted butter characterized by its delectable and rich flavour. It is white in colour with slightly greenish tinge and has typical soft body and a smooth grainy texture with pleasant aroma. This product has been extensively used for dietary and religious practices since vedic times. The entire quantity produced forms an intermediate product for preparation of ghee (clarified butter fat). Nearly 30% of the total milk production goes for desi butter manufacture. The average yield of the product is very low ranging from 5.5-7.0% for every 100 kg milk used for the purpose. The chemical composition of the product is variable depending upon the method of manufacture. It is difficult to achieve the uniform standard of 20% moisture in the final product due to limitations in the technique adopted for its manufacture. The non fatty solids and lactic acid are derived from the method of preparation and preservation. Higher non fatty solids in makhan indicates use of self soured milk, while a high lactic acid content indicates prolonged storage and in sanitary conditions of manufacture.

7.1. Okra or Bhindi (Abelmoschus esculentus L.)

Okra (Bhindi) is a member of Malvaceae family, earlier known as Hibiscus esculentus, and is an annual vegetable crop grown from seeds in tropical and subtropical parts of the world. Okra, also known as “lady finger” or “gumbo”, is a highly nutritious green edible pod vegetable. Botanically, this perennial flowering plant belongs to the mallow family but is grown as an annual. It is named scientifically as Abelmoschus esculentus. Okra originated in tropical and subtropical Africa and India is suggested to be the secondary centre of origin. There are four species under Abelmoschus genus which includes both cultivated and wild forms. They are A. esculentus, A. manihot, A. caillei and A. moschatus. In India, Okra is widely cultivated in states of Andhra Pradesh, West Bengal, Orissa, Bihar Uttar Pradesh, Karnataka, Assam West Bengal, Orissa, Gujarat and Bihar.

Cultivars/Varieties: Okra varieties differ in growth habit, height of plant, presence of purple pigmentation and ridges on fruit. The popular varieties under cultivation in different parts of the country are Arka Abhay, Arka Anamika, Azad Kranti, Co 1, MDU1, Gujarat Bhindi 1, Harbhajan Bhindi, Hisar Unnat, Parbhani Kranti, Perkins Long Green, Punjab 7, Punjab 8, Punjab Padmini, Pusa A 4, Pusa Makhmali, Pusa Sawani, Red Bhindi, TN Hybrid 8 and Varsha Uphar. Besides, a number of hybride from many private sector agencies/seed companies are marketed. Of these, Varsha, Vijay, Adhunik, Panchali, Hybrid No. 6,7 and 8, Nath Sobha, Supriya, Sungro 35, Aroh 1, - 2, -3, -9 and are more popular.

Uses

Different parts of the plant are used for different purposes. Abelmoschus moschatus Medik. Leaves and seeds are considered as valuable traditional medicine. Abelmoschus moschatus is also called ‘musk okra’ a medicinal plant belonging the same family. The leaves and new shoots of this plant is also used as vegetable. The aromatic seeds of this plant are aphrodisiac, ophthalmic, cardio tonic, antispasmodic and used in the treatment of and intestinal complaints and anxiety.

ABSTRACT

Malting is the process accompanied by restricted sprouting of cereals in humid atmosphere along with controlled set of conditions. It is a process of soaking, germination and drying that causes changes to the microstructure of grains. Malting causes changes in functional and nutritive value of grains. Malting results in increase in protein content, mineral availability, in vitro protein digestibility, oil absorption capacity, water absorption capacity, water solubility index and fall in level of antinutritional factors, viscosity and bulk density. The malting conditions are significantly affected by varietal difference, maturity of grains and structural composition. Therefore, optimum malting conditions should be determined for grains in order to avail the health and nutrition benefits.

Whatever may be the nature and strength of resistance to the performance appraisal, management cannot relinquish this practice. Without employee appraisal, salary increases, reassignments or promotions cannot be administered rationally. Each of these areas has its specific problems and one of the solutions of modern times has been offered by an unusually promising frame work offered by Peter Drucker concept of Management by Objectives (MBO).
MBO calls on the subordinate to set his short-term performance goals in consultation with his superior. Goals explicitly state the actions which the employee will follow. Instead of being appraised in a traditional way by his superior, the subordinate appraises his own performance by evaluating it vis-à-vis the goals. Before establishing a goal, the individual studies his job, assesses his potentialities, and formulates some specific plans to reach the goal. The supervisor is not the evaluator, but directs the goal-setting process to ensure that it matches the objectives of the organization.

The vegetables and fruits are largely consumed fresh and day by day, their market demand is increasing due to nutritious quality. However, market supply is not sufficient to meet public demand throughout the year as production is inadequate because crop production has not increased substantially in recent years due to climatic changes. Another important reason for low production is the economic losses incurred due to damages of insect pests and plant diseases.

Since ancient times, reduction in pest and disease incidence is sought by spraying of pesticides including conventional preparations such as tobacco decoction, Bordeaux mixture, neem leaf extract etc. During the green revolution years, the synthetic pesticides were greatly recommended for pest and disease control and thereby increasing crop yields many-fold. Having experienced the spectacular improvement in both yield and quality of marketable produce, farmers were solely dependent on synthetics and ultimately abandoned other control measures.

Abstract

Maintaining grain in good condition in storage requires careful, routine inspection and good storage practices. An integrated approach of several management tools and practice factors are necessary to manage stored grain to prevent deterioration and wastage: This includes:1) harvesting, handling, and storage equipment; 2) initial condition of the grain; 3) grain moisture content; 4) grain temperature; 5) aeration system management ; 6) insect and mold control; and 7) monitoring grain condition. An effective management program greatly enhances the likelihood of maintaining top quality grain. A well- designed and properly operated storage system with adequate aeration capacity, storing only clean grain at the proper moisture content and temperature, sanitizing the bin before loading, checking the grain condition regularly and correcting problems before they get out of hand are critical management strategies that must be implemented to prevent grain damage and possible serious economic loss.

Management of Calf

Management before birth

    ·    As calf management begins before birth, a few days before the calf is born, the pregnant cow is transferred to a maternity paddock, which should be near the homestead (for closer observation), well watered and free from physical objects.
 
    ·    The signs of imminent parturition (calving) include filling of udder with milk and is turgid, vulva swollen with a string of mucus hanging from vagina.
 
    ·    Insemination records can also be used to estimate the expected calving date.

Fishery resources get depleted due to over fishing and one of the important management measure is to assess the fish stock, get update on the status of fishing and devise measures to mitigate fishery resource depletion. Recent examples of such management regulations in Indian fisheries are implementation of minimum legal size for fish catch, regulations brought out to control length and size of fishing fleet etc. With multi-dimensional expansion of fishing activities in India, it is necessary to analyse stock data critically bringing out suitable recommendations for fishery management. Stock assessment models play a vital role in management of fisheries.

Fish stock assessment is an evaluation of the state of the stock as relating to changes in the abundance or composition of the stock to changes in the amount of fishing. It involves the use of theories, laws, models and methods propagated by various scientists. There are two general approaches - population model (Schaefer, 1954, 1957) in which the stock is treated as a single entity subject to simple laws of population growth and the analytic approach (Ricker, 1958, 1975) which considers the abundance of the population as determined by the net effect of the growth, reproduction and mortality of individual members of the stock.

Stock assessment gives us the maximum sustainable yield (MSY), fish mortality, the input and output into the fisheries. The various environmental changes as they affect biological and physical features of a fish species, family or the group need to be assessed by using a model for its stock assessment and the basic data is got from research and commercial surveys.

Research survey is a detailed investigation of the fish based on the objectives. It involves taking the data on biological parameters of the fish (length, weight, sex etc), the food of the fish including the percentage composition. Other factors include the environmental features such as time, weather, position of catch, physicochemical parameters of the water body. Commercial survey involves taking note of basic and important information of commercial usefulness e.g length-weight frequencies, percentage composition etc which are strictly for economic purpose.

Mango (Mangifera indica L.), the choicest fruit of India, is said to be the king of fruits. Mango belongs to the family Anacardiaceae and genus Mangifera. The fruits are lusciously juicy, with pleasant aroma and sweet taste. In nutritive valve and popularity, no other fruit can match it. It is an outstanding source of vitamin A, a good source of vitamin C, apart from normal minerals and other vitamins. In, India, it occupies the same position as apple does in temperate countries and grapes in certain other regions.

According to de Candolle, mango has been under cultivation in India for over 4000 years. References indicate that Alexander the Great noticed a beautiful mango plantation in the Indus Valley in 327 BC. Early foreign traveller like Huen-tsang (632-645), Ibn-Haukul, (902-968 AD) Ibn- batuta (1325-1349 AD) and Ludovici de Varthema (1503-1508) also praised the mangoes grown in India and mentioned it in their travel notes.

Mango is native to southern Asia, especially eastern India, Burma, and the Andaman Islands. Besides India, mango is cultivated as a commercial crop in many countries, such as, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Myanmar, Sri Lanka, Thailand, Vietnam, Malaysia, the Philippines, Indonesia, the Fiji Island, Tropical Australia, Egypt, Israel, Sudan, Kenya, Uganda, Tanzania, South Africa, the USA (Florida, Hawaii and Puerto Rico), Mexico, Brazil, Haiti and West Indies.

Varietie/Hybrids: Dashehari, Langra, Chausa, Fazli, Malda and Bombay Green are the popular varieties in Northern and Central India. Alphonso, Kesar, Pairi, Rajapuri, Jamadar, and Totapuri are widely grown in Western India. Bangenapalli, Suvarnarekha, Neelum, Totapuri, Malgoa and Alphonso are popularly grown in Southern India and Gulabkhas, Kishen Bhog, Himsagar, Zardal, Fazli and Langra are grown mainly in Eastern part of the country. Mallika, Amrapali, Manjeera, Ratna, Niranjan, Neeleshan, Neelishwari, Neelphonso, Arka Aruna, Arka puneet, Arka Anmol, Sidhu and CISH-M1 are some of the hybird varieties available.