eChapters

Introduction: Relation between transportation and meat quality
One of the fundamental aims of animal production system is to ensure better quality meat. Apart from various animal husbandry practices that affect the meat quality, the transportation of meat animals from farm to slaughterhouse and their handling at lairage, affect the meat quality greatly. For better meat quality, the pH of the meat should fall from normal pH 7.0 - 7.2 in live animal to pH 5.5 (ultimate pH) after slaughter at the onset of rigor-mortis. The low muscle pH is required to inhibit the microbial growth and meat tenderization (cathepsins system is activated at low pH). The ultimate muscle pH is achieved through the accumulation of lactic acid which is produced as a result of anaerobic glycolysis of glycogen. After slaughter, as the oxygen supply to muscle ceases, ATP is generated through anaerobic glycolysis of glycogen and in this process lactic acid is produced. ATP is required to keep the muscle in relaxed stage. This anaerobic glycolysis carries on till the glycogen reserve is exhausted. So, higher the glycogen reserve at the time of slaughter, longer the length of time duration of anaerobic glycolysis and higher the quantity of lactic acid production and greater the reduction of muscle pH. Hence, livestock should be transported and handled before slaughter carefully because stress during transit and in lairage could severely deplete the glycogen reserve of livestock.
The following facts should be especially taken care by the farmers raising livestocks for meat
1. Housing arrangement and design
• Any flaws/deficiencies in design, layout, cubicle size and its design, drainage, water bowls, slats, air circulation, etc. should be rectified

Weather and climate have profound influence on agriculture of a region. There are some differences between these two terms. Weather describes the state of the lower atmosphere of a place with respect to temperature, precipitation, wind direction, wind speed, humidity, cloudiness and pressure etc. over a short period of time. The short term variations over minutes to days are indicated as weather of a location. It says whether the atmosphere is hot or cold, rainy or dry, sunny or cloudy, still or cyclonic and so on usually for period of 24 hours. The weather may vary from place to place and from time to time due to difference in temperature, cloudiness, humidity, rain and other events of atmosphere. It may be sunny at one locality, but rainy at another locality.

In India, about 46 per cent of the milk produced is either consumed at the producer level or sold to non-producers in the rural area, the balance 54 per cent of the milk is available for sale to organized and unorganized players. The organized sector comprises of Government, Producers’ Owned Institutions (Milk Cooperatives & Producer Companies), and Private players which provides a fair and transparent system of milk collection round the year at the village level. The unorganized/informal sector involves local milkmen, dudhias, contractors, etc. and they are mostly found to be opportunistic, as there is no uniformity of milk price paid to producers and it varies depending upon the situation. The possibility of adulteration of milk is higher among these unorganized groups. In the areas where competition is high and the presence of the formal sector is strong, the unorganized sector generally gives higher prices and at the same time, the unorganized sector doesn’t offer remunerative prices to the producers where the organized sector is not present.

Abstract

Multiflash drying (MFD) process is based on the application of multiple cycles of heatingvacuum pulse to a solid food. Heat can be provided by convection (from hot air), conduction (by contact with a hot surface), microwaves, or by a combination of these methods. Due to the moderate temperatures applied to the drying food, and the sudden decompression step (vacuum pulse), MFD processes allow obtaining crispyanddried foods with very good nutritional and sensory properties. Vacuum pulses cause food texturization, which depends on the pressure drop rate during decompression. In fact, the dried products are similar to freezedried foods, but with more open structures, which result in higher crispness. The dehydration can be performed in relatively short processing times, when compared with traditional drying processes (e.g. solar drying, airdrying, vacuum drying and freezedrying). The short process time indicates clearly that this class of drying process presents a huge potential to the production of driedandcrisp foods at industrial scale.

1. Natural Mineral Water- Food Safety & Standard Regulations - 2011 and IS 13428:2005 Reaff. 2009 requirements
2. Packaged Drinking Water other than Natural Mineral Water- Food Safety & Standard Regulations - 2011 and IS 14543:2004 Reaff. 2009 requirements
3. Water for processed Food Industry- IS 4251 : 1967 Reaff. 1992 requirements
4. Drinking water- IS 10500 : 2012

The safety of the food supply suitably remains a high main concern for industry stakeholders, regulatory agencies and patrons. With the surfacing of new safety challenges and issues, companies are establishing and upgrading programs to reduce risk factors. These programs are constantly monitored for reliability, repeatability, reproducibility and effectiveness. Due to the health and safety risks posed by chemical, microbiological and environmental contaminants, analytical methods are progressively more becoming a pride and joy of food safety programs. Innovative analytical approaches are being developed in response to budding food safety issues. To monitor for known issues only the established and officially approved methods are used often. Oftentimes, new analytical methods are developed, improved or modified quickly in response to issues, such as melamine contamination, which are unforeseen. In such instances, accurate data derived from sound, validated analytical methods are required to facilitate industry stakeholders and regulators to make sound methodical decisions.

Through research, industry has improved a host of analytical methods in recent years, resulting in higher sensitivity and accuracy for difficult-to-detect contaminants, detection of contaminants in new matrix classes for grades. These advances have been made in the face of changing set of laws, more painstaking method-validation standards and end user demands for safe, quality products. Further to this, this spirit of innovation will continue to be fundamental in industry’s efforts to ensure the safety of the comprehensive food chain.

Introduction
Plant breeding and genetics are at the forefront of agricultural innovation, playing a crucial role in enhancing crop traits to meet the ever-growing demands for food, fiber, and fuel. This chapter delves into the scientific principles, methods, and modern advancements in plant breeding and genetics, providing a comprehensive understanding of how these disciplines contribute to global food security and environmental sustainability. The chapter begins by exploring the fundamental principles of plant breeding, including heredity, genetic variation, selection, and hybridization. These concepts form the foundation for developing new plant varieties that exhibit desirable traits such as improved yield, disease resistance, and environmental adaptability. The importance of genetic variation is emphasized as a key driver of plant improvement, with discussions on the sources of genetic variation, the role of germplasm resources, and the impact of genetic diversity on plant adaptation. As the chapter progresses, various breeding techniques and strategies are examined, including mass selection, pedigree breeding, backcrossing, and markerassisted breeding. These methods are crucial for developing new plant varieties that can withstand the challenges posed by climate change, pests, and diseases. The chapter also addresses the role of genomics in plant breeding, highlighting the significance of genomic selection, gene editing, and bioinformatics in accelerating the breeding process and enhancing crop traits. The chapter further explores the controversial topic of genetically modified organisms (GMOs), discussing the principles of genetic engineering, the rise of genetically modified crops, and the associated controversies and concerns. The importance of GMOs in addressing global food security and environmental challenges is also discussed, providing a balanced perspective on their potential benefits and risks. The chapter concludes by emphasizing the critical role of plant breeding and genetics in ensuring food security and combating global warming. By developing climate-resilient crop varieties, improving water efficiency, and enhancing disease and pest resistance, plant breeding and genetics can contribute to sustainable agricultural practices that reduce greenhouse gas emissions and conserve natural resources

INTRODUCTION

Meat is the flesh of animals that is used for food and consists of muscle, fat and bone. If the muscle which is commonly known as the lean meat, is examined under the microscope, it is seen to be made up of bundles of fibers held together by a thin membrane called connective tissue. Further study reveals that these fibers are in readily hollow tubes that vary in length in different animals and in different muscles in the same animals that are filled with a fluid, sometimes called muscle juice, which is known to contain protein, minerals and extractives. The forms of protein in the muscles are myosin (a globulin) and myogen (an albumen) and in addition, on red meats, hemoglobin.

Application of HACCP concept in surveillance & quality assurance programs for raw, frozen, canned, cured, irradiated, cooked, chilled, MAP & freeze dried products.

HACCP

Hazard analysis and critical control point (HACCP) is a system that identify, evaluate and control hazards that are significant for food safety (CAC, 2003). It is a science based systematic approach that assesses hazards and establishes control systems to focus on prevention rather than end product testing. It enhances the safety of the product from biological, chemical, and physical hazards in a production process. It provides way to demonstrate competence to consumers and compliance with legislative requirements.

6.1. History

HACCP was originally developed by Pillsbury Company in 1959 to produce zero defect food for astronauts of National Aeronautics Space Administration (NASA) in USA. In 1971, the HACCP concept was presented at the United States National Conference on Food Protection. The first major document on HACCP was approved by the National Advisory Committee on Microbiological Criteria for Foods (NACMCF) in 1989. The Codex then issued the first HACCP guidelines in 1993, which was adopted by the FAO/WHO Codex Alimentarius Commission (CAC). The USFDA’s Seafood HAACP program became mandatory in USA since 1997. The European Union, in 2004, laid down the general hygiene requirements of all food business operators (EC Regulation 852/2004) and the additional specific requirements for foods of animal origin, including live bivalve mollusks and fishery products which (Regulation EC 853/2004). The United States Food Safety Modernization Act 2011 became the latest enforcement of food safety measures to protect public health. Thus, HACCP has become an International reference system for food safety assurance.

1. Introduction Proso millet (Panicum miliaceum (L.) belongs to the grass family Paniceae. It is a perennial cropthat grows in summer each year as late-seeded summer crop (Figure 1). Its origin can be traced back to at least 2000 B.C. when it was said to be grown in the Central European regions. Proso millet plant thrives in dry areas such as Africa, Central Russia, Manchuria, Middle East and Northern India and North America’s Great Plains. Proso millet was introduced to Canada in the 17th century and used sparingly as a feed crop in the early 1900s (Rajasekaran and Francis, 2021). This is a low-demand crop and is utilised in organic farming systems across Europe and as an intercrop in the United States. Its shallow root system and resistance to atrazine residue make it a great intercrop between two crops that need a lot of water and pesticides. The last crop’s stubbles entrap more heat into the soil which promotes faster and earlier growth of millet. Hence, it can help to evade summer drought and achieve continual crop rotation (Kalinova and Moudry, 2006). It is an erect herbaceous annual crop with a lot of tillering. Its plant can reach a height of 45-100 centimetres. The stem is thin, with prominently enlarged nodes. The roots are thin and fibrous.

Pineapple is considered as one of the important tropical fruits which are extremely demanded in the international market. This is due to its various quality characteristics like sweeter taste, blemish-free flesh, a cylinder shape with golden yellow pulp, a very pleasant aroma when ripe, low acidity, and a longer shelf life compared to other varieties (Banful et al., 2011; Malezieux et al., 2003). Pineapple can grow well in low as well as high fertile soil but the best production is obtained with high fertile soils. Souza et al. (2007) found that a fruit’s weight is directly correlated with the plant vigour at the time of f loral differentiation with a minimum D-leaf length. Therefore, it is proved by Souza et al. (2007) that nutrients play animportant role in pineapple cultivation to increase the growth and yield of the crop. It is also noted that the pineapple plants have a large nutrient uptake demand, especially for potassium, followed by nitrogen, calcium, magnesium, sulphur, and phosphorus.

The focus on pineapple production should not only aim for stable volumes but also sustainable growth while maintaining quality standards amidst a growing population. The ‘Green Revolution’ with high inputs has plateaued, emphasizing the need for a natural balance to sustain life and property. Effective plant nutrient management is crucial for environmental, economic, and social reasons. Pineapple’s nutrient requirements, high in nitrogen (N), potassium (K), and iron (Fe), with lower needs for phosphorus (P) and calcium (Ca), make soil organic matter desirable. Repeated cultivation exhausts soil nutrient reserves, leading to decreased yields. Heavy synthetic fertilizer use may cause soil impaction and acidification. Combining organic manure with chemical fertilizers is recommended for profitable and sustainable crop production while preserving soil fertility. However, excessive nitrogen application poses health risks. As farmers transition to organic farming, the negative impact of inorganic fertilizers on pineapple size, yield, and quality is evident.

Browntop millet (Urochloaramosa) is a warm-season crop that produces seeds that are heavier than other millet varieties. This crop is cultivated in several types of soils and climates. Browntop millet is an introduced grass that originated in Southeast Asia. It is grown in Africa, western Asia, Arabia, China, and Australia. It was introduced to the United States from India in 1915. It is also useful for controlling erosion, producing hay, feeding wild animals, and producing grain for human use. In addition, it is also utilized as a crop for wild animal food. In dry and semi-arid regions, millets constitute the main food supply. Although India is the main producer of millet, output and use have fallen. Browntop millets are nutrient-dense. Browntop millet is a miracle crop for arid and rainfed areas. Nearly all of the necessary nutrients are found in browntop millets.

Introduction 
Chapter 15 provides a comprehensive analysis of climate change and its profound effects on agriculture and global food systems. This chapter delves into the science of climate change, focusing on its impacts on agricultural practices, climate-smart strategies, and the role of specialized climate change centers and institutes. The chapter begins with an exploration of the impacts of climate change on agriculture, detailing how shifts in temperature, precipitation patterns, and extreme weather events affect crop yields, livestock production, and overall agricultural productivity. It highlights the vulnerabilities of different agricultural systems and regions to climate change. Climate-smart agricultural practices are central to adapting to and mitigating the effects of climate change. This section covers adaptation strategies, such as adjusting planting dates, diversifying crops, and improving water management. It also addresses mitigation strategies, including reducing greenhouse gas emissions through sustainable farming practices and enhancing carbon sequestration in soils. Adaptation and mitigation strategies are discussed in detail, with an emphasis on how these approaches can be integrated to address climate change comprehensively. The interplay between adaptation (adjusting to changing conditions) and mitigation (reducing the root causes of climate change) is examined, emphasizing the need for balanced and coordinated efforts. The chapter underscores the importance of climate change centers and institutes in addressing food security. These institutions play a crucial role in research, policy development, and the implementation of climate-smart practices. They provide valuable data, tools, and guidance for managing the impacts of climate change on agriculture. The impact of climate change centers and institutes on global warming is analyzed, focusing on how these organizations contribute to reducing greenhouse gas emissions and enhancing adaptive capacity. Their role in advancing climate science and supporting climate action is highlighted. Modern concepts in climate change centers and institutes are reviewed, showcasing innovative approaches and technologies that are shaping the field of climate science and its application to agriculture. The chapter concludes with strategies for combating food security and global warming challenges. It emphasizes the need for continued research, international collaboration, and the adoption of effective climate-smart practices to ensure sustainable agricultural systems and enhance global food security.

Introduction
Understanding the concepts of technology transfer, licensing, and commercialization is crucial as it plays an important role in understanding how scientific discoveries leads to generation of new technologies further making them the impactful solutions that benefit industries and society. In the context of Indian HEIs, this especially important because a large volume of impactful research often remains underutilized due to limited commercialization channels. This chapter explains the terminology, essential components of technology transfer, outlines its significance for the innovation ecosystem. It also outlines the evolution of India’s technology transfer ecosystem, and emphasizes while understanding its potential to boost India’s economy, encourage entrepreneurship, and strengthen global competitiveness. From initial idea to a market-ready product is complex and multiphased process. The stepwise process is shown in Figure 1. It highlights a structured pathway consisting of five core phases: Idea/Concept, Technology development, Intellectual Property (IP) rights, Technology transfer, and Technology commercialisation.
Phase 1: Idea/Concept stage
This process of technology transfer starts with the Idea/Concept phase, where an invention is created. Each phase plays an important role in transforming raw scientific knowledge into innovative solutions that benefit society and generate economic value. In this phase breakthrough ideas emerge, within labs. Researchers explore and develop initial proof-of-concept or prototypes to validate their ideas. At this stage, the focus is primarily on knowledge creation rather than commercialization. This pathway of technology transition is summarized in Figure 1.

Introduction

Food is any substance or a product obtained from nature, which contains nutritive and non-nutritive components that help to maintain or improve the health of an individual if consumed in optimal amount (Sukhneet and Malhotra, 2014). Globalization of food production and procurement makes food chains longer and more complex and increases the risk of food safety incidents. Infections and diseases arising from contaminated/adulterated food remain threats to global public health (Havelaar et al., 2015; Luo et al., 2019). The WHO reports shows that every year foodborne diseases cause the death of 33 million people including many children (WHO, 2019). Food safety is linked to the presence of foodborne hazards in food at the point of consumption. Since food safety hazards can occur at any stage in the food chain it is essential that adequate control be in place. Therefore, a combined effort of all parties in the food chain is required to deliver safe food products to the final consumer. Effective and harmonized food safety systems shall manage and ensure the safety and suitability of food in each link of the supply chain.

Although the food industry has the prime responsibility of ensuring safe foods in most societies, the maintenance of a safe food supply is regarded as a responsibility of the government of that country. This responsibility has, over many years, led governments to adopt legislation, standards and regulations for food processing and to impose penalties when a business fails to meet the expectation. As with any legislation, an effective system for detecting failures to comply with the legal requirements increases compliance and hence, in this case, promotes food safety. Governments have an obligation to protect consumer health and this includes protection against food borne diseases. Food standards are therefore necessary to aid governments in protecting public health. However, the standards can only be effective when they are enforced through an efficient food control system. This therefore requires comprehensive legislation inspection, food monitoring and food borne surveillance. An efficient food control system must be supported by competent staff with good laboratory services. Political and institutional support and stability are also important elements.

1. The disease Beri - beri is caused due to deficiency of vitamin
   1. D
   2. C
   3. B
   4. A
2. Which of the following vitamin is found in Fish liver oil?
   1. Vitamin D
   2. Vitamin C
   3. Vitamin K and C
   4. Vitamin A

INTRODUCTION

A food may have three attributes (1) Provide energy and nutrition (2) Give pleasure, i.e., enjoyable aroma, colour, and taste and (3) Health benefits. Functional food has physiological benefits and reduces the risk of chronic disease beyond basic nutrition.

Functional foods, also reported as ‘nutraceuticals’, ‘medical foods’ or ‘designer foods’ in the literature, were first described by Roberfroid (1999) as ‘Food similar in appearance to conventional food that is intended to be consumed as part of a normal diet, but has been modified to subserve physiological roles beyond the provision of simple nutrient requirements’. Examples are iodized salts, vitamin A and vitamin D fortified milk and yoghurt, folic acid enriched bread, soy products, wheat bran and oats products.

A TTO needs a planned budget of five years to sustain it in the long term. This involves budgeting the infrastructure, manpower, research, and outreach programs. The budgetary needs of a TTO will be based on the size and scope of the TTO and the maturity of the parent institution it caters to. The initial years will be focused on capacity development, the appointment of experts, and the establishment of processes of intellectual property management. The mature TTO will generate income through the returns of the licensing agreements and the collaborative efforts with the industry. Nevertheless, external funding through grants and government schemes plays a vital part, particularly in the initial years. The planned budget ensures long-term stability and development of the TTO.
9.1 Budgetary heads
9.1.1 Operational expenditure
Operational expenditure refers to the ongoing costs incurred by a TTO to maintain its day-to-day operations. This includes the cost of maintaining the office, including rent, power and utility bills, computer and network infrastructure, patent management cost, and administration charges. The filing and legal charges also fall within this category. The overheads will be a heavy burden if not planned with finances properly. A TTO has to be provided with a properly planned operational budget that covers the daily operational expenses. The operational expenses help the office perform effectively, sustain the employees, and effectively manage IP. The operational expenses that the budget normally covers include:

India has achieved a commendable position of being the highest milk producing country in the world. Nearly 110 million tons of milk per annum is contributed by small and marginal farmers having 2-3 milch animals which are scattered in lakhs of villages across the length and breath of India. The poor socio-economic conditions are serious constraints in producing raw milk of good quality. The quality of milk is further deteriorated during subsequent handling and transportation. Milk being a product of biological origin, is extremely vulnerable to attack by microbes. It is also a good vehicle for additives and adulterants without any apparent changes in its appearance. Thus, milk is susceptible to several post-secretion changes, some natural and some man-made.

Indian dairy industry faces a mammoth task to meet the world quality standards, particularly in the present context of globalization and increasing quality conscious consumers. In view of the highly perishable nature of milk soon after it is secreted, it is important to monitor its quality by having a firmly installed quality assurance programme along the entire production-to-supply chain. This can be possible with application of sensitive, accurate and rapid methodologies as a tool in quality assurance programmes.

Quality comprises of several attributes ranging from physical, chemical, technological and bacteriological through nutritional to aesthetic. All dairy plants have a quality assurance laboratory (Fig. 8.1) and usually follow chemical quality control with the intention of payments to contractors/producers, processing of milk and meeting mandatory requirements for end products. Quality is judged both by objective and subjective tests.

Introduction

Food is a resource of vital importance and its safety in the whole chain, from producer to consumer, is a worldwide concern. In fact, as food trade expands throughout the world, food safety has become a shared concern among all consumers. This issue began to be taken seriously at a period where there is a significant increase of illness caused by infected food in both developed and developing countries. Unsafe food contains hazardous agents or contaminants that can make people sick, immediately or by increasing their risk of chronic disease. Contaminants can enter food at many different points in the food production process, and can occur naturally or as the result of poor or inadequate production practices. International competitiveness depends more on quality and safety concerns than on prices. Governments and local authorities intervene in the market place in setting technical regulations; and sanitary and phytosanitary measures. This encouraged food processing companies around the world to implement food safety management systems which guarantees the production and distribution of safe foods. Prerequisite Programs (PRPs) are considered as the integral part of food safety standards and audit schemes all over the world. It is essential to implement food safety programmes in every company to check the chances of illness or injury due to unsafe food.