eChapters

1.    Carbohydrates can be represented by

(a) Fischer projection formula

(b) Haworth cyclic structure

(c) Both (a) and (b)

(d) None of these

2.    If a compound has got four chiral centers then it will have isomeric structures.

(a) 4

(b) 8

(c) 16

(d) 64

3.    The sugar, which does not possess chiral center is

(a) Glucose

(b) Fructose

(c) Glyceraldehyde

(d) Dihydroxyacetone

Introduction

The farm to fork approach utilizes agricultural products as raw material for processing by industries to obtained value-added products (Mijinyawa et al., 2007). Processing that transforms animal, vegetable, or marine materials into value-added food products for consumers and forms an integral part of agriculture for storage or size reduction into fine particles. One of the major problems associated with processing is the unavailability of processing facilities including appropriate engineering materials for the transformation of agro-based produce into different forms (Ogwuagwu, 2007). This transformation process mainly includes operations like particle size reduction, milling or comminution, etc. utilizing different size reduction forces without making alterations in chemical properties (Enrique, 2012). This enhances the eating quality or appropriateness of foods for advance processing with a more varied range of available products.

Grains are dried small seeds with adhered or removed husks or outer layers processed for consumption (FAO, 2011). The two major types of commercial grain crops include cereals (such as millet, corn, sorghum, wheat, rye and so on) and legumes (such as beans, groundnuts and soya beans). These grain crops are subjected to a milling operation to break them into smaller pieces or more practically appropriate form. The grinding process involves the application of different mechanical forces to overcome the interior bonding forces bringing change in the state of solid grains to different desirable forms such as flour or meal (Kaul and Egbo, 1985). As a result, the physical state of these grains is modified due to a reduction in size and change of shape (Ryan and Spencer, 2008). Most of the actual milling processing that is used in various industries is based on simple operations. But now various technological progress has been initiated that involves the adoption of computer control for various milling operations to improve efficiency and quality while minimizing labor requirements. Hence, the present text highlights the various technological advancements and evaluation techniques employed in milling operations.

Introduction
 
Whilst food has long been used to improve health, our knowledge of the relationship between food components and health is now being used to improve food. Although most foods can be considered “functional”, in the context of this review, the term is reserved for foods and food components that have been demonstrated to provide specific health benefits beyond basic nutrition. Widespread interest in select foods that might promote health has resulted in the use of the term “functional foods”. Seaweeds are known for their richness in polysaccharides, minerals and certain vitamins [1], but they also contain bioactive substances like polysaccharides, proteins, lipids and polyphenols, with antibacterial, antiviral and antifungal, as well as many such other properties [2]. This gives seaweed great potential as a supplement in functional food or for the extraction of compounds. Physiologically active substances in marine algae are classified into two types based on the difference in the mechanisms viz. (i) non-absorbed high-molecular materials like dietary fibres, and (ii) low molecular materials, which are absorbed and which affect the maintenance of human homeostasis directly. Seaweeds are among the first marine organisms chemically analyzed, with more than 3,600 articles published describing 3,300 secondary metabolites from marine plants and algae, and they still remain an almost endless source of new bioactive compounds [3].

Introduction

Spices and aromatic herbs have been used since antiquity as preservatives, colorants, and flavour enhancers. Spices, which have long been the basis of traditional medicine in many countries, have also been the subject of study, particularly by the chemical, pharmaceutical, and food industries, because of their potential use for improving health. Both in-vitro and in-vivo studies have demonstrated how these substances act as antioxidants, digestive stimulants, and hypolipidemics and show antibacterial, anti-inflammatory, antiviral, and anti-carcenogenic activities. These beneficial physiological effects may also have possible preventative applications in a variety of pathologies. The chapter presents an overview of the potential of spices and aromatic herbs as functional foods ingredients.

Introduction

Encapsulation may be defined as a process to entrap one substance (active agent) within another substance (wall material). The encapsulated substance, except active agent, can be called the core, fill, active, internal or payload phase. The substance that is encapsulating is often called the coating, membrane, shell, capsule, carrier material, external phase, or matrix. In the food industry, encapsulation process can be applied for a variety of reasons. Encapsulation is a useful tool to improve delivery of bioactive molecules (e.g. antioxidants, minerals, vitamins, phytosterols, lutein, fatty acids, lycopene) and living cells  (e.g. probiotics) into foods [1]. In most cases, encapsulation refers to a technology in which the bioactive components are completely enveloped, covered and protected by a physical barrier, without any protrusion of the bioactive components. Also, encapsulation has been defined as a technology of packaging solids, liquids, or gaseous materials in small capsules that release their contents at controlled rates over prolonged periods and under specific conditions. Produced particles usually have diameters of a few nm to a few mm.

Food provides a sense of wellbeing and comfort and makes people feel good. In this world of a growing population, the need for affordable, safe and good quality food is rising constantly. On the other hand, there is growing awareness of customers who demand that food be produced and supplied hygienically in socially responsible and eco-friendly ways.

Abstract

Recently, the reduction of post harvest food losses around the globe is a critical issue for ensuring future food security. Drying techniques is important option to prevent losses and preserve food for long time. The solar thermal energy required to remove moisture from the food during the drying process can be optimized by designing suitable solar dryers. Moreover, the application of solar energy in drying of agricultural products has tremendous potential, since it can easily provide the low temperature heating required for drying and helps in reduction of CO2 emissions. Hence, the present chapter deals with descriptions of different types of solar dryers used to dry various types of agricultural food products and design of solar dryers. Also, the heat and mass transfer parameters with respect to various process variables to estimate the performance of the food dryer system were analyzed. The advantages of solar dryers in terms of net CO2 emissions mitigation potential and the quality attributes of dried food products are also discussed. It is suggested that properly designed solar dryers having low operational cost compared to electrically heated dryers may prove to be an energy saving device for drying of agricultural products. However, the techno-economical and environmental aspects of various efficient solar dryers are needed to be further studied for applications in various irregular shaped food products.

Abstract
 
Drying is one of the most popular methods used for preserving products and extending their shelf lives by reducing moisture content to a low level to prevent microbial spoilage and moisture-mediated deteriorative reactions. As an efficient technology with high heat and mass transfer rates, impingement drying has been commonly used in various industrial drying such as tissue paper, textiles, photographic films, coated paper, nonwovens, carpets, lumber etc. In the past two decades, air impingement technology has got more and more attention in the field of food and agricultural products processing.

Introduction
 
The future of functional foods is bright and there are several reasons for the growing interest in “functional” foods, such as awareness of personal health deterioration, led by busy lifestyles with poor choices of convenience foods and insufficient exercise; increased incidence of self-medication; increased level of information from health authorities and media on nutrition and the link between diet and health; scientific developments in nutrition research; and a crowded and competitive food market, characterized by pressurized margins. Now, the consumer is well aware of the relationship between diet and health. Consumers understand that the risk for chronic diseases such as heart disease, stroke, colon cancer, and type II diabetes is possibly preventable by modification in their diet pattern. This scientific progress in understanding the relationship of diet to disease, along with increasing health care costs and the consumer’s desire to initiate healthy eating and lifestyle habits, makes this a potentially fertile ground for the development of food products that meet these demands.

1. Introduction

Processed foods have become a way of life in the modern world. Manipulation of chemical and physical properties facilitated by modern food technology and followed by addition of food additives has created a plethora of innovative food products that offer consumers greater convenience, variety, safety, satiety and quality.
Food additives have been in use for centuries for preservation, for providing improved appearance or desired texture and flavour. Preservation of foods started with salting and smoking. The Egyptians used colours and flavours, Romans used saltpeter and in India, turmeric is being used. Similarly additives such as baking powder as a raising agent, thickeners for sauces and gravies and colours- synthetic as well as from natural sources are being used.
Today more than 2500 food additives have been in use mainly due to the spurt in the research activities in food science and technology that are aimed at providing different characteristic functions to foods. Out of these, about 1300 are the flavouring additives.

Abstract

Medicinal herbs are economically and nutritionally important plants, which are rich in health-promoting compounds. Herbs are the backbone of both the traditional Chinese and Indian medicine, which has long history as part of their culture. Ensuring the quality of herbs is a crucial step for integrating the traditional medicine into science-based modern medicine. Drying is an essential technique in preservation of herbs as it affects directly the quality attributes of the dried products, whereas many producers lose much profit due to poor drying techniques. So, employing a suitable drying technology and selection of appropriate drying conditions are very important for producing high quality herb products. The aim of this article is to summarize the advances in drying technologies of medicinal plants, describe the current status and identify future research opportunities. The current work provides more data and information for selecting optimum technology for herb drying and would trigger innovative drying technologies to enhance drying kinetics and quality of herb drying.

Abstract

Food proteins are among the commonly used ingredients by food manufacturers to produce different products with desired characteristics. Due to several nutritional and functional properties, proteins have different functions in various food products in addition to their role in metabolic system of the human body. Dilute or concentrated solutions of pure proteins or unprocessed food products which are rich in protein are very sensitive to deterioration or degradation by microorganisms and thus have short shelf life at ambient temperatures due to their highly moist structure and high protein content. Drying is one of the best methods that can guarantee preservation, a longer shelf life, chemical or thermal stabilization and resistance against other stresses. A full understanding of stresses encountered during drying is needed to choose an appropriate drying process and to optimize this process for maximum product quality. A number of methods have been used by various researchers to dry protein-containing foods. Among these methods, freeze drying and spray drying are the most common techniques. Sun drying, convective hot air drying, vacuum drying, heat pump drying, radio frequency drying as well as combined or hybrid drying methods with two or more of the drying methods have also been developed.

Starch is the most abundant polysaccharide carbohydrate reserve which is available in different parts of plants such as roots, stem, leaves, seeds, flowers, and fruits. It is considered an excellent source of energy and plants utilizes carbon from it for their metabolic activities (Smith, 2001). It is composed of glucose units linked together by glycosidic bonds to form amylose and amylopectin polymeric chains (Abbas et al., 2010).

Fish as a cheap source of protein, bioavailable minerals, vitamins and essential fatty acids, ensures global nutritional security. India witnessed around 14-fold increment in fish production from 0.7 million tonnes in 1950’s to 10.43 million tonnes in 2014-15. With a contribution of 5.05% to world’s capture production and 6.6% of total aquaculture fish production, India emerged as one among the most progressive fish producing countries in the world. Fisheries as a major agricultural sector, constitutes 0.92% of total GDP and 5.58% of total agricultural GDP of India. With the global fish export value of 148,147 million USD, India ranked seventh position among the top fish exporters of the world. The sector is crucial in securing food supply, job opportunities, nutritional needs and earning foreign exchange for the country, cataloguing it as a sunrise sector of Indian economy.

Technological developments in harvest sector

Introduction of new materials for fishing gears, mechanization of fishing crafts and modern electronic technologies for navigation and fish location, paved way for the significant increase in fish production in India over the years. ICAR-CIFT, Cochin has been involved in the design and optimization of a range of crafts and gears since its inception, which gave a major fillip to the harvest sector of Indian fisheries. Considering the plateauing/decline in catches perceptible since last two decades, ICAR-CIFT has shifted its focus from increasing production to responsible harvest of resources. As a result a large number of technologies for sustainable harvest and green technologies with reduced emissions were developed.

Fermentation plays a major role in our diet and give the basic foods like bread, yoghurt, wine and cereal and legume based traditional fermented foods. The development of fermented food products can be considered as one of the greatest achievements of human civilization and goes back thousands of years. It arose from the necessity to conserve foods, to make them more digestible and also more enjoyable. During the centuries, man learned by trial and error to conduct the fermentation processes by changing physical and chemical parameters in the basic food ingredients. It took much longer, however, to discover the cause of fermentation processes: only towards the end of the 19th century it was demonstrated, that baker’s yeast is the cause of alcoholic fermentation. Through the development of the technique of "pure microbial culture", the basis for a controlled use of microbes in food industry was established.

The unique feature of fermented foods is the vital role of microorganisms that bring about essential bio-trasformations of the substrates during fermentation contributing number of desirable properties such as improved product shelf life, enriched diet with improved flavor and texture, increased safety, enriched nutritional supplement and probiotic functions. Fermentation is a chemical reaction carried out by many types of microorganisms to obtain energy. Fermentation is a process for production of a product by means of mass culture of microorganisms. In fermentation, microorganisms breakdown complex organic compounds into simpler substances. Although chemical changes and microbial growth usually mean food spoilage, in some cases fermentation is desirable and microorganisms are actually added to foods. For example, in the production of beer, wine, and other alcoholic beverages, yeasts convert sugar into ethyl alcohol and carbon dioxide. In the making of yogurt and cheese, lactic acid bacteria convert lactose, a sugar found in milk, to lactic acid. Alcohol, acids, and other compounds produced in fermentation act as preservatives, inhibiting further microbial growth. In addition to its use with alcoholic beverages, cheese, and yoghurt, fermentation is used to produce yeast bread, soy sauce, cucumber pickles, sauerkraut, and other traditional fermented food products. The variation in agroclimatic conditions prevailing in India and diverse form of dietary culture of various ethnical groups produced traditional fermented foods such as idli, dosa (rice-legume based), vada, papad, wari, balle (legume based), bhatura, jelabi, nan (wheat based), paneer, shrikhand (milk based).

Abstract
The growing global population has intensified farming practices, increasing the use of fossil fuels and agrochemicals. With limited land and the need to enhance food production, balancing environmental impact, especially carbon footprints, is crucial. Climate-smart mitigation options, with a prime emphasis on crop diversification, can help agriculture adapt to anomalous weather patterns and build resilience. Legumes offer a sustainable solution by reducing greenhouse gas emissions, as they produce 5-7 times less gases per unit area compared to other crops. They aid in carbon sequestration, with soil carbon estimates of 7.21 g kg-1 of dry matter, and save fossil energy by decreasing nitrogen fertilizer use, reducing CO2 emissions by 277 kg ha-1 per year. Legumes play a key role in low-emission farming systems due to their ability to fix atmospheric nitrogen, reducing dependence on energy-intensive synthetic fertilizers. They improve soil health, enhance soil structure, and support carbon sequestration. Integrating legumes into crop rotations reduces the need for chemical pesticides and fertilizers. Additionally, legumes can be used in food, feed, and biofuels, lowering reliance on more carbon-intensive resources. Embracing legumes in farming systems promotes sustainability improves soil health, and considerably reduces the overall environmentalimpact of agriculture.
Keywords: Carbon Footprint, Greenhouse Gas Emissions, Legumes Sustainability

1. INTRODUCTION

Mushrooms are edible fungi of commercial importance and their cultivation has emerged as a promising agro-based land-independent enterprise. There are about 20 varieties of mushrooms being cultivated throughout the world for food. In India, only white button mushroom (Agaricus bisporus J.E. Lange Imbach), oyster mushroom (Pleurotus spp. [Fr.] P. Kumm) and paddy straw mushroom (Volvariella volvacea [Bul.] Singer) are grown commercially. Of these, white button mushroom contributes ~90% of the total production. Mushrooms have been recognized as an alternate source of good quality protein and produce the highest quantity of protein per unit area from agro-wastes. Besides, they provide potentiality for generating employment, improving economic status of growers, help in checking pollution and earn foreign exchange.

Out of the total production about 45% of mushrooms produced are consumed in the fresh form while the other 55% are processed, with 5% in dehydrated form and 50% in canned form. This is because their shelf-life in the fresh form is very short and hence mushrooms are traded in the world market mostly in the processed form. Fruiting bodies (reproductive phase) of Agaricus are appreciated not only for texture and flavour but also for their chemical and nutritional characteristics.

Introduction

Fermentation has been an integral part of food processing throughout the history of mankind. In beginning, it was mainly preservation method, then it became key process in substantial sensory characteristic development and now it is utilized to improve overall properties of outcome from major industries like bakery, dairy, beverages, etc. The human understanding of controlled fermentation process changes its fundamental objective by exploring its success in development of rheological and texture characteristics.

The biochemical transformation of raw food due to fermentation affects the organoleptic as well as rheological properties of a product. The changes in rheological as well as sensory properties is related with the modification of major component by the action of microorganism. For example, transformation of polysaccharides in bread dough by action of yeast produce ethanol, CO₂ and other simple compound which modify sensory as well as rheology of dough. The major micro-structural, bio-compositional and bio-chemical changes are due to microbial action are frequently described to understand the effect of fermentation on rheological as well as sensory properties of food products. The rate and quality of these associated major changes mainly depends upon concentration of saccharides for growth of microorganism as well as nature and existing microflorae. Hence, a proper monitoring of changes in rheological and sensory properties is necessary to optimize the controlled fermentation as well as design of process parameters from engineering and consumer point of view.

The biochemical changes directly responsible for changes in basic rheological and sensory characteristic including flow behavior, consistency, viscoelastic properties, hardness, adhesiveness, color, aroma, flavor and mouthfeel. The food industry is so diverse and exploring new and possibilities to catch diverse consumer worldwide, a proper understanding of effect of fermentation on mentioned properties will be key to hold competitive market. Hence, the present chapter will cover the basics of rheology and its role in food industry, effect of fermentation on rheological and sensory attributes of major class of food.

Food preservation involves treating and safely handling food to prevent or delay spoilage while retaining colour, texture, flavour and nutritional value. Food deterioration may result from microbial growth, indigenous enzymes, oxidation, physical damage, insects, moisture, temperature and other environmental conditions. Bacteria, fungi and other microorganisms contaminate food through soil, water, air and biological sources. The effectiveness of preservation therefore depends on controlling intrinsic factors such as pH, water activity, nutrients and redox potential, together with extrinsic factors such as temperature, humidity and storage atmosphere. Understanding these mechanisms provides the scientific foundation for selecting safe and effective preservation methods.

1. INTRODUCTION

Vegetables occupy a prominent position in our diet especially to tone up our digestive system and provide nourishment. Regular use of vegetables, supply many essential health building and protective substances, such as vitamins and minerals. India ranks second in vegetable production in the world. The abundant production of vegetables during the season, results in a glut. Consequently, a large quantity of vegetables gets spoiled resulting in a considerable loss of natural resources. Therefore, preservation is the best way to save the wastage of vegetables and make them available even in the off-season (Plate 1).