eChapters

Key facts
    
·    The Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) defines food security as a ’situation that exists when all people, at all times, have physical, social and economic access to sufficient, safe and nutritious food that meets their dietary needs and food preferences for an active and healthy life’. There are four dimensions of food security: Food Availability (availability of sufficient food for all people at all times, i.e. production); Food Accessibility (physical and economic access to food at all times, i.e. affordability), Food Utilization (access to food that is nutritious, safe and produced in environmentally sustainable ways, i.e. nutrients in food and food safety); and Food Stability (reliability of adequate food supply).
    
·    Agriculture is important for food security since it provides food for the people and is the primary source of livelihood for 36% of the world’s total workforce. In the heavily populated countries such as Asia and the Pacific, about 40% to 50%, and in sub-Saharan Africa, about two-thirds of the working population make their living from agriculture.
    
·    Agriculture, livestock and fisheries production are all sensitive to climate and are affected by its changes. Climate change will increase hunger and malnutrition, emergence of new pests and diseases and will threaten fishing and aquaculture industries.

1.1. IMPORTANCE OF FOOD MICROBIOLOGY

Food may be defined as substances that provide nutrients, which when eaten and absorbed by the body, maintain life and growth. Food is basically energy stored in plant and animal foods in chemical form. On consumption, the stored form gets converted to physiological energy. Food is the prime necessity of life. Man has exhibited much thought and foresight in cultivating a variety of grains, fruits, vegetables, nuts and oilseeds and in rearing birds and animals for use as food.

Of the three primary needs of an individual, food, clothing and shelter, ‘food’ occupies the most important place. The biodiversity of foods- cereals, millets, pulses, oilseeds, spices, fruits and vegetables is varied and high in India, where we have varied agro-climatic regions from Kashmir to Kanyakumari. All the fifteen major climates in the world exist in India. India is the second largest producer of food in the world. The impact of green revolution is remarkable in India with many fold increased food production in the last five decades. The full potential of Indian agriculture can not be realized unless India emerges as a major player in the World agriculture.

World population is set to go beyond nine billion by 2050 and demand for food is likely to increase further because of growing affluence and globalization. Food security is achieved when all people have physical and economic access to sufficient, safe and nutritious value added food. India is emerging as a food power in the international trade of foods. The food processing industry in India has been identified as one of thrust areas for the development of the country. It has emerged as a highly perspective sector with immense potential in food processing. The future of Indian food processing industries is bright, provided it improves its quality of products as per international standards.The quality of food processing refers to the adherence of physical, chemical, biological, nutritional and sensory parameters required to achieve the wholesomeness of a food product. Quality control has become an important aspect for food processing industry for both domestic and export markets.

There is wastage and loss of food during its journey from production to consumption. Approximately one-third of the massive 1.3 billion tonnes of food produced annually goes to waste due to various factors such as poor
handling after harvesting, unfavorable storage conditions, insect infestations, and diseases. To combat these losses, synthetic chemicals have historically been used to control pathogens and pests, but concerns over their potential health risks have led to restrictions on their usage. In response, researchers are now focusing on developing safer and more effective physical treatments for disinfecting and protecting horticultural produce. This chapter specifically explores the advantages of using heat treatment as one such method, discussing how it helps maintain the quality of fruits and vegetables while simultaneously reducing postharvest losses.
Some of the heat processing methods are discussed below:
Fruit juices, RTS and nectars are preserved by pasteurization or by using chemical preservatives. Squashes, crushes, syrups and cordials are preserved by adding chemical preservative like potassium metabisulphite or sodium benzoate.

1. INTRODUCTION

According to the Food, Drug and Cosmetic Act (1968) food is “an article that provides taste, aroma or nutritive value”. The term 'health food' is generally used to describe foods that are considered to be beneficial to health beyond a normal diet required for human nutrition. Though, the term is not precisely defined by any regulatory agencies such as the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) however, “Health food” is sometimes used as an umbrella term encompassing natural foods, organic foods, whole foods, and sometimes dietary supplements or may also refer to functional foods. The use of foods for promoting health and relieving symptoms is as old as the practice of phyto-medicine for treating or preventing various types of illness and have been documented in Hippocratic and Vedic texts and the canons of Traditional Chinese Medicine. Therefore, “Let food be thy medicine and medicine be thy food”, quoted by Hippocrates about 2,500 years ago, is certainly the tenet of today which is receiving overwhelming interest. In the recent years, rapid urbanization, industrialization, increase in per capita income etc. in developing countries like India, have resulted in dramatic lifestyle changes leading to lifestyle related diseases like coronary heart disease, obesity, diabetes, cancer and hypertension. The transition from a traditional to modern lifestyle, consumption of diets rich in fat and calories combined with a high level of mental stress has compounded the problem further.

Introduction

Fermentation of food dates back to ancient practice of wine making. Fermented foods reflect culture and tradition of folklore and emphasis their close association with nature. Various methods employed for fermenting foods aimed in food preservation to reduce wastage; however lactic acid fermentation enhanced nutrition content and improved organoleptic properties. Experimental evidences on benefits on health and wellness on consumption of fermented foods are being reported. Fermentation process used for preparation of indigenous or traditional foods often depend entirely on natural microflora on the surface of raw material and containers used; Practices of fermenting foods are passed on as traditional know how to generations as a legacy. The fermented food manufacturers rely on commercial starter cultures, and highly reliant on indigenous materials as microbial collections are unique and highly variable according to region and products. Therefore, isolation of novel organisms, development of newer products and interactions are being explored using variety of fermented foods obtained through traditional processes

Non-thermal preservation technologies inhibit microorganisms and enzymes without relying primarily on high temperatures. They are designed to preserve freshness, colour, flavour, texture and heat-sensitive nutrients more effectively than conventional thermal treatments. These methods employ hydrostatic pressure, electrical energy, electromagnetic radiation, reactive species or mechanical forces to damage microbial cells and disrupt essential biological functions. The chapter examines high-pressure processing, pulsed electric fields, cold plasma, ultrasound, irradiation, pulsed light and edible coatings. It explains their operating principles, mechanisms, applications and nutritional implications. These technologies offer promising alternatives for producing safe, minimally processed foods, although equipment costs, process optimisation and industrial scalability remain important considerations.

F- distribution: A probability density function that is used in analysis of variance and is a function of the ratio of two independent random variables each of which has a chi square distribution and is divided by its number of degrees of freedom.

F0 value: It is used to express F-value when z =10oC / 18oF and the temperature is 121.1oC. It is the number of minutes at a specific temperature (250oC) required to destroy or kill a stated number of microorganisms and has specific z-value. It is also called reference value.

Facing or lining board: The layer of the paper on which the flute is embedded is called facing or lining board (Plate 151).

Factor VIII: It is a glycoprotein based clotting factor of blood plasma that is essential for blood clotting and is absent or inactive in hemophilic patients. It is also called alsoantihemophilic factor

Facultative: Possessing the capacity to survive in more than one type of environment.

Faculative anaerobeic: Organisms that grow either with or without oxygen.

Facultative parasites: Facultative parasites can adapt to live on dead organic matter and often have a wide host range and can easily be cultured on artificial media. These organisms may be aerobic or anaerobic but under changed conditions, they changes to anaerobic or aerobic.

Introduction

Fermented foods and beverages comprise an indispensable part of the human diet. They can be generally defined as those foods and beverages produced via controlled microbial growth and conversion of various substrates using either enzymes or as whole cell itself, as shown in Figure 1.

7.1 Introduction

Evaporation is an unit operation which converts a liquid into a vapour, leaving behind a concentrated solution or a higher boiling liquid. In other words, the goal of evaporation is to vaporize most of the water from a solution containing a desired product. Heat is the main tool in evaporation, and the process occurs more readily at high temperature and low pressures. Removal of water from foods provides microbiological stability, reduces deteriorative chemical reactions, and reduces transportation and storage costs. Evaporation can be distinguished from some other drying methods in that the final product of evaporation is a concentrated liquid, not a solid. It also differs from distillation, since the vapours produced in the evaporator are not further divided into fractions.

The word Cymbidium has been derived from a Greek word ‘Kumbos’ meaning ‘hole or cavity’ referring to the structure of the base of the lip. The genus consists of 44 known evergreen species in the family Orchidaceae, subfamily Vandoideae, tribe Cymbidieae and sub-tribe Cryptopodiinae. It is distributed from northwestern India to China, Japan, south through the Malay Archipelago to the north and east Australia. (DuPuy and Cribb, 1988). Cymbidiums have been for over hundred years one of the most famous orchids in commerce.

Table cream: It is also called coffee cream, single cream or homogenized cream. It is used in coffee and tests about 20% butter fat.

Table oil expeller: It is a type of the machine that is used for extraction of the oil from the oil seeds (Plate 588).

Table ready meat: Cooked and smoked sausages are called table ready meat.

Tal prolong: This wax is esters of fatty acid glycosides NaCMC.

TAME: It stands for p-Toluene sulfonyl L- arginine methyl ester. It is used in isolation of Trypsin inhibitor.

Beverage: It includes all drinks whether they are fermented or unfermented, prepared from fruits or non-fruit, sweetened or unsweetened eg. tea, coffee, coca cola, cider, maaza are all beverages.

Fruit Beverages : Beverage which is prepared partly or fully from fruit juice or pulps with or without additives eg. pure fruit juice, squash, cordial, RTS beverage etc.

Non-fruit Beverage : Beverage which does not contain any fruit part eg. Coca cola, pepsi, sherbet etc.

Unfermented Juice or Pure Fruit Juice: This is the natural juice pressed out of the fruit and practically its composition remains unaltered during preparation and preservation. No additives like sugar, acid, water etc. are added. eg apple juice, orange juice.

Fruit Juice Beverage: This is the fruit juice that has been considerably altered in composition by adding water, sugar, acid, flavour, colours, preservatives etc. before consumption. It may or may not be diluted before it is served as a drink eg. squashes, nectars, appetizers etc.

Abstract

The applications of enzymes are awe inspiring marvels of nature. Scientists can use enzymes to explore all aspects of biology; from molecules to cells to tissues to organs to organism as a whole. For the purpose of food and drinks, enzymes have been exploited by men for thousands of years without really knowing what they are and how do they work? Enzymes have played a pivotal role in many aspects of life since the dawn of life. Today, biocatalysis is being used as a useful alternative to chemical process technology. The fact that enzymes work under much milder conditions oftemperature, pressure and acidity, thus, obviate harsh processing conditions and thereby decrease the possibility of damage to heat labile substrates and save energy. Enzyme technology being eco-friendly can be justifiably termed as‘Green technology’. Due to their high specificity and high catalytic rate, enzymes prevent wastage and reduce time of processing / manufacturing, respectively. The ability of enzymes to act on wide variety of substrates has made them useful tools to exploit cheaper starting material in food industry. Reportedly, over 45% of the enzymes produced are being used in food industry and remaining is shared by detergent (34.4%), textile (11%), leather (2.8%) paper and pulp (1.2%) and other industries (5.6%). Enzymes serve a myriad of functions in food processing, from maximizing juice extraction of pectin-rich fruits to extending shelf-life in baked goods through slowing starch retro-gradation. Indian food processing industry has seen significant growth and changes over the past few years. Though, the market of enzymes is increasing at a fast pace but most of the enzymes of the food sector are coming from overseas. Seeing the unparallel role of enzymes in food processing sector as in multifaceted domains, the researchers should emphasize upon finding novel enzymes and explore their untapped commercial benefits using modern techniques of enzyme engineering, immobilization and biotechnological interventions.

Liberalized economies and evolving businessstrategies push variousindustries to achieve a competitive edge both in the domestic and international markets. Food industry especially, works on the bedrock of quality of products and services in order to attract and retain customers. In this new world of economic order, customers can select from wide range of products and services that are available in the market.

Food safety is a discipline ensuring safe consumption of food without any injuries to human health. It is multifaceted and influenced by various factors including, food processing, handling and practices, consumer demand and their knowledge, globalization of world food trade, changes in food consumption pattern (Chen et al., 2020).

Introdction

Fruits are an important supplement to the human diet, as they provide minerals, vitamins and fiber required for maintaining good health. Fruits are also rich in phytochemicals (7, xanthophylls, polyphenols, flavonoids, phenolic acids, organic acids etc.) which possess good antioxidant properties. India’s diverse climatic conditions ensure availability of almost all the varieties of fresh fruits and vegetables. According to FAO (2021), the country ranks first in the production of bananas (26.45%), mangoes (including mangosteens and guavas) (43.80%) and papayas (39.30%). The scenario of horticulture crops in India has become very encouraging. The percentage share of horticulture output in agriculture has become 33 per cent (Anonymous 2021). India has witnessed increase in horticulture production over the last few years. Significant progress has been made in area expansion resulting in higher production. Over the last decade, the area under horticulture grew by 2.1 per cent per annum and annual production increased by 3.9 per cent. During 2020-21, the production of horticulture crops was 334.60 million tonnes from an area of 27.74 million hectares. The production of fruits has increased from 76.42 million tonnes in 2011-12 to 108.34 million tonnes in 2022-23 (Agricultural Statistics at a Glance 2022). The area under cultivation of fruits stood at 7.05 million hectares. The total production of fruits in the year 2020-21 was highest in case of Andhra Pradesh (17.70 million tonnes) followed by Maharashtra (11.73 million tonnes) and Uttar Pradesh (11.23 million tonnes) (Anonymous 2021). India now is the second largest producer of vegetables and fruits in the world. The country ranks at first position in the production of banana, mango, lime and lemon, papaya and okra. The area and production of fruits in India is presented in Table 1. The fruits namely banana, mango, citrus, papaya, guava, grapes, apple, pineapple and sapota account for more than 85 per cent of the total production of fruits. The other fruits which are produced in India are almond, walnut, jackfruit, bael, ber, custard apple, kiwi, passion fruit, peach, pear, plum, strawberry etc.

Fruit ripening is a phenomena during which horticulture produce undergoes a series of complex physical and biochemical changes initiated through a series of hormones (Ethylene, auxin, abscisic acid (ABA), gibberellins, jasmonic acid, etc.) to attain maximum physiological maturity and favourable organoleptic properties. These changes lead to alterations in colour, texture, aroma, flavour and nutrient composition. In a nut shell, ripening involves increase in pulp to peel ratio, solubilisation of pectic substances, degradation of complex carbohydrates, organic acids and chlorophyll, accumulation sugars, flavour volatiles, polyphenolic compounds and pigments (carotenoids, xanthophylls and anthocynanins). The extent of these changes guide harvesting, readiness for processing and consumption decisions, with physic-chemical alterations serving as indicators of optimum ripeness. Respiration rate, ethylene and ABA are key regulators of fruit ripening in climacteric and non-climacteric fruits, respectively. In climacteric fruits, ABA interacts with ethylene, influencing the synthesis of ethylene itself. Although there is ample documentation on the involvement of hormones in fruit development and ripening, our understanding of the functions of various hormones throughout growth, maturation, and specific ripening processes remains incomplete.

Waste is defined as anything that doesn’t add value to their operations. To the average person, waste is simply stuff that’s unwanted or useless. But from a scientific perspective, there’s really no such thing as waste. Nearly all the things we throw away can be transformed or processed in ways that make them useful again.

Waste comes in various forms, ranging from household trash to industrial byproducts. These include domestic waste, factory waste, e-waste, construction waste, agricultural waste, and more. We can categorize waste into different types:

Solid waste: This includes organic materials like vegetable and kitchen waste, as well as general household waste.

E-waste: Discarded electronic devices such as computers, TVs, and music systems fall into this category.

Liquid waste: This comprises water used in various industries, as well as waste from tanneries, distilleries, and thermal power plants.

Plastic waste: Items like plastic bags, bottles, and containers make up this category.

Maturity Standards and Harvesting Indices

Harvesting : Harvesting is detaching a commodity from the point of its origin. This point of origin may be an above ground plant part i.e. shoot eg. apple, tomato etc. or an underground plant part eg potato, carrot, etc. or in water i.e. harvesting of fish from a pond (not to be covered in this book).

Muscle structure
• All muscles are composed of muscle fibres which are the structural unit of muscles
• In turn, every single muscle fibre is made up of numerous smaller components called myofibrils
• Functional unit of myofibril is sarcomere
Connective tissues associated with muscle
• Whole muscle is surrounded by a sheath of connective tissue called epimysium
• Whole muscle is divided into muscle bundles by perimysium formed out of connective tissue septa originating from the interior surface of the epimysium separating the muscle fibres
• The perimysium contains the blood vessels and nerves